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,  HE     LINCOLN     SCHOOL 
0/    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 


DESCRIPTIVE 
BOOKLET 


Published  by 
THE  LINCOLN  SCHOOL  0/  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 

425  West  123rd  Street  New  York  City 

1922 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/descriptivebooklOOcolurich 


THE     LINCOLN;;  B^.C  H  O  0  L 

of    T  E  A  C  H  E  R  S    C  0  L  L  SIG  S 


A 

DESCRIPTIVE 

BOOKLET 


Published  by 

THE  LINCOLN  SCHOOL  of  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 

425  West  123rd  Street  New  York  City 

1922 


•  •  • 


•      • •* • ' 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

I.    Preface 3 

11.    The  Staff 4 

III.  Purpose 7 

IV.  Organization lo 

V.    The  Elementary  School 12 

VI.    The  High  School 16 

VII.    Measurements 19 

Vm.    Reading 22 

DC.    English 24 

X.    Foreign  Languages 28 

XI.    Social  Studies 30 

XII.    Mathematics 37 

Xin.    The  Sciences  in  the  High  School       ...  44 

XrV.    Industrial  Arts 48 

XV.    Household  Arts 52 

XVI.    Fine  Arts 55 

XVII.    Music 59 

XVin.    Physical  Education 64 

XIX.    The  Library 68 

XX.    Student  Activities 72 

(I)  Educational  Excursions 72 

(II)  The  Student  Councils 72 

(III)  Standing  Committees        72 

(IV)  The  Student  Employment  Bureau    ...  74 
(V)  The  School  Bank          74 

(VI)  Student  Publications 74 

(VII)    Scout  Troops 75 

(VIII)  Girl  Scouts  of  America 75 

iii 


584434 


iv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XXI.    Miscellaneous 77 

Parents-Teachers  Association 77 

College  Entrance 78 

School  Visitors 79 

The  New  School  Building 79 

Admission,  Fees,  and  Scholarships      ...  80 

School  Calendar 80 


A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 


A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 


I.    PREFACE 

This  pamphlet  presents  general  information  regarding  the 
purposes  and  procedures  of  the  school.  Each  subject  or  activity 
is  separately  presented,  thus  making  some  unavoidable  repetition 
in  the  statement  of  aims,  principles  and  methods.  The  book- 
let is  designed  for  parents  who  are  considering  placing  children 
in  the  school,  and  for  people  engaged  in  educational  work  who 
desire  an  outline  view  of  the  school  as  a  whole.  Special  publica- 
tions have  been  written  and  others  will  be  prepared  giving  a  much 
more  detailed  account  of  main  aspects  of  the  school's  work  than 
can  be  included  in  this  pamphlet.  A  list  of  pamphlet  pubUca- 
tions  now  available,  and  information  regarding  other  special 
pubUcations  which  are  to  appear  may  be  obtained  by  addressing 
the  director  of  the  school. 


II.    THE  STAFF 


The  staff  as  here  given  is  the  list  appointed  for  the  school 
year  1921-22.  Following  the  administrative  officers  the  names 
appear  in  alphabetical  order.  Changes  in  the  staff  for  1922-23 
are  indicated  below. 

.  Dean  of  Teachers  College 
.  Director  of  the  Lincoln  School,  and 
Director  of  the  Division  of  School 
Experimentation  of  the  Institute 
of  Educational  Research 
.  Principal  of  the  High  School  Di- 
vision and  Teacher  of  Mathemat- 


RussELL,  James  E. 
Caldwell,  Otis  W. 


ScHORLiNG,  Raleigh 


Coffin,  Rebecca  .     . 

♦Morgan,  Leland  B. 
Anthony,  Cora  A. 
Barnes,  Emma  A.  . 
Bennett,  Virginia  C.  . 
*Bradish,  Ethelwyn  C. 

BULLARD,  BeRTHE  S.     . 

Clark,  John  R.  .  . 
Coleman,  Mrs.  Satis  N. 

COLLOTON,  CeCILE 

Curtis,  Nell  C.  .  . 
*Dewey,  Evelyn  .  . 
Eaton,  Anne  T.    .     . 


ics 

.  Principal  of  the  Elementary  School 

Division 

.  Secretary 

.  Manager  of  the  Lunchroom 

.  Sixth  Grade 

.  Physical  Education 

.  Fine  Arts 

.  French 

.  Mathematics 

.  Music 

.  Assistant  Educational  Psychologist 

.  Third  Grade 

.  Collaborator  in  Publications 

.  Librarian 


Fales,  Roy  G Industrial  Arts  in  the  High  School 

*Resigned 


THE  STAFF 


FiNLEY,  Charles  W. 
*Gates,  Fanny  C. 

Glenn,  Earl  R.     . 

gucker,  colba  f. 
Harrison,  Gail     . 
Herr,  Louis  A. 

HoLZ,  Margaret  . 
Keelor,  Katherine  L 
Kinney,  Charles  M. 
Knowlton,  Daniel  C 
Mason,  Howard  H. 
Mearns,  Hughes  . 
Mellen,  Evelyn   . 
*Meras,  Albert  S. 

Miner,  Pauline  H. 

Oliphant,  Mary  C. 
O'Neill,  Alice 
Quinche,  Othon    . 
RiDDicK,  Alice 
RuGG,  Harold  O.  . 
*Saenz,  Moises 
Sanford,  Vera 
ScHWEPPE,  Emma  .     , 
Smith,  Helen  G.    . 
Trowbridge,  Harrison 
Whitman,  Arthur  D. 
WiNCHELL,  Florence 
ZiRBEs,  Laura  .     .     . 


,  Biology  and  General  Science 

.  Physics,  and  Chairman  of  Social 
Activities 

.  Physical  Science  and  General  Sci- 
ence 

.  Physical  Education 

.  First  Grade 

.  Industrial  Arts  in  the  Elementary 
School 

.  Spanish  and  German 

.  Second  Grade 

.  Music 

.  History  and  Civics 

.  School  Physician 

.  Composition  and  Literature 

.  Music — (violin) — part  time 

.  French — part  time,  Chairman  of 
Modern  Language  Group 

.  Assistant  in  the  First  and  Second 
Grades 

.  Assistant  in  the  Library 

.  Fourth  Grade 

.  French 

.  Fine  Arts 

.  Educational  Psychologist 

.  Spanish 

.  Special  Teacher  in  the  High  School 

.  Special  Teacher  of  Social  Studies 

.  Assistant  in  After  School  Clubs 

.  Assistant  in  After  School  Clubs 

.  Composition  and  Literature 

.  Household  Arts 

.  Special  Investigator  in  Reading 


♦Resigned 


A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 


New  Appointments  for  1922-1923 


Cox,  Philip  W.  L. 

Everett,  Marion  . 
kuderna,  j.  c. 
RuGG,  Earl  U. 
TiPPETT,  James  S. 
ViGGiANi,  Louisa  . 
YouNGHANS,  Alice 


.  Principal  of  the  High  School  Di- 
vision 

.  Assistant  in  Upper  Grades 

.  Physics,  part  time 

.  Assistant  in  Research 

.  Fourth  Grade 

.  Assistant  in  French 

.  Assistant  in  Physical  Education 


m.    PURPOSE 

There  is  a  widespread  conviction  that  education  can  be  im- 
proved through  the  use  of  critical  and  experimental  methods. 
The  ordinary  curriculum,  though  it  already  contains  a  consider- 
able amount  of  new  material  derived  from  modern  activities, 
still  retains  much  that  is  of  doubtful  value.  Moreover,  even 
under  relatively  favorable  conditions,  pupils  do  not  satisfactorily 
master  this  material,  old  or  new.  Several  problems  are  thus 
presented:  first,  how  much  of  the  traditional  material  has  actual 
educational  value  in  modern  schools;  second,  what  new  materials 
should  be  introduced  into  the  schools  and  how  can  they  be 
prepared  for  school  use;  and,  third,  how  can  teaching  methods 
be  made  more  efficient  and  more  economical?  Many  teachers 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  are  trying  to  solve  these  problems, 
but  they  are  for  the  most  part  simultaneously  carrying  a  heavy 
teaching  or  administrative  routine,  so  that  they  are  not  free 
to  devote  themselves  to  new  educational  tasks.  They  lack  the 
time;  they  lack  the  strength;  the  burden  of  their  daily  tasks  ham- 
pers original  effort.  In  the  hope,  therefore,  that  a  school  created 
for  the  purpose  of  attacking  such  problems  may  contribute  to 
progressive  educational  movements,  the  Lincoln  School  was 
estabUshed. 

In  the  Lincoln  School,  the  curriculum,  since  it  is  in  process 
of  development,  changes  from  year  to  year;  but  the  purpose 
remains  constant.  The  aim  is  to  construct  a  fundamental  cur- 
riculum which  will  be  representative  of  the  important  activities, 
interests,  and  possibihties  of  modern  Hfe.  It  is  hoped  that  a 
balanced  combination  can  be  obtained  which  will  include  aesthe- 
tic, linguistic,  social,  industrial,  and  scientific  elements.    This  is 


8  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

obviously  a  selective  task.  The  curriculum  cannot  be  compre- 
hensive in  the  sense  of  containing  everything  that  is  important; 
it  can  at  best  select  those  fundamental  and  characteristic  activ- 
ities which  are  valuable  in  themselves  and  which  are  hkely  to 
encourage  the  pupil's  further  development.  From  the  great 
range  of  things  worth  while  the  Lincoln  School  is  thus  trying  to 
choose  those  which  promise  to  be  most  effective  in  developing 
the  pupil's  abilities  and  in  bringing  him  intelhgently  into  touch 
with  the  world  in  which  he  lives.  It  does  not  follow  that  a  cur- 
riculum of  this  type  when  constructed  will  necessarily  be  best 
for  all  pupils;  but  experience  with  the  conventional  types  of 
curriculums  indicates  that  a  curriculum  more  closely  related  to 
normal  interests  and  to  society's  current  activities  may  effec- 
tively serve  the  needs  of  large  numbers  of  children. 

Although  the  school  is  frankly  experimental  in  spirit,  purpose, 
and  method,  it  adopts  as  its  starting  point  the  best  types  of 
approved  contemporary  practice.  In  developing  from  this 
point,  every  precaution  is  taken,  through  the  use  of  standard 
tests  and  measures,  to  secure  the  best  education  for  each  pupil. 

Besides  subject-matter,  two  other  features  deserve  emphasis. 
First,  the  conditions  under  which  American  children  grow  up 
make  it  very  important  that  they  should  cultivate  self-control 
and  self-direction.  In  the  hope,  therefore,  that  an  effective 
democratic  discipline  may  be  established,  every  pupil  is  given 
opportunities  to  exercise  initiative,  and  at  the  same  time  is  led 
to  bear  the  accompanying  responsibihty.  Second,  American 
life  is  not  only  individuaUstic,  but  cooperative.  Every  mem- 
ber of  a  community  must  know  how  to  express  himself  and 
to  take  care  of  himself,  but  he  must  also  know  how  to  coordi- 
nate his  own  efforts  with  those  of  his  fellows.  In  school, 
therefore,  the  pupil  must  be  made  aware  of  the  needs  and 
responsibihties,  not  only  of  himself  as  an  individual,  but  also 
of  the  student  body  of  which  he  is  a  member.  To  this  end 
cooperative   efforts  of  various  kinds  have  been  encouraged; 


PURPOSE  9 

assembly  exercises  largely  conducted  by  the  pupils  have  been 
instituted;  boy  scouts  and  girl  scouts  are  given  recognized 
places  in  the  school  activities;  a  school  bank,  a  school  councU,  a 
school  employment  committee,  and  a  school  orchestra  have  been 
organized,  and  school  pubhcations  are  issued. 

The  school  is,  therefore,  something  more  than  a  curriculum 
made  up  of  modern  studies  taught  in  a  modern  spirit;  it  is  a 
society  of  which  the  pupils  are  responsible  members.  The  goal 
is  the  physical,  intellectual,  moral,  and  social  training  of  each 
pupil. 


IV.  ORGANIZATION 

The  Lincoln  School  began  with  a  small  enrollment  and  will 
not  be  allowed  to  become  larger  than  is  necessary  for  experi- 
mental purposes.  During  the  first  year,  1917-1918,  116  pupils 
were  enrolled.  In  1918-1919  the  enrollment  was  184,  in  1919- 
1920,  208,  in  1920-1921,  215,  in  1921-1922,  240,  and  in  1922- 
1923  it  will  have  approximately  320  pupils.  Pupils  come  from 
homes  varying  widely  in  social  and  vocational  status.  In- 
tellectual tests  are  not  given  in  the  selection  of  pupils,  but 
standard  educational  tests  are  later  given  to  all  pupils  and  are 
used  as  a  basis  of  classification  and  comparison. 

At  present  the  school  is  organized  in  three  divisions: 

(a)  The  elementary  school,  grades  i  to  6,  consisting  of  pupils 
approximately  six  to  twelve  years  of  age. 

(b)  The  junior  high  school,  grades  7  to  9,  consisting  of  pupils 
approximately  twelve  to  fifteen  years  of  age. 

(c)  The  senior  high  school,  grades  10  to  12,  consisting  of  pu- 
pils approximately  fifteen  to  eighteen  years  of  age. 

Pupils  are  grouped  in  classes  on  the  basis  of  their  abilities  and 
attainments.  Within  each  class  provision  is  made  for  individual 
promotion  according  to  individual  needs.  Effort  will  be  made 
to  ascertain  whether  the  number  of  years  now  required  for  prep- 
aration for  college  or  for  the  completion  of  elementary  and 
secondary  education  cannot  be  reduced  and  whether  greater 
achievement  cannot  be  attained  during  the  years  now  devoted 
to  elementary  and  secondary  school  work.  It  is  believed  that 
the  more  competent  pupils  may  either  complete  their  high  school 
work  earlier  than  is  usual,  or  may  enter  college  with  advanced 

10 


ORGANIZATION  ii 

credits.  Enough  has  already  been  accomplished  to  lead  the  au- 
thorities of  the  school  to  hope  that  in  the  near  future  the  num- 
ber of  years  required  in  elementary  and  high  school  may  be 
reduced  for  almost  all  pupils. 


V.    THE    ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  human  beings  of  all  ages  learn 
more  readily  and  retain  better  the  things  that  they  feel  a  need 
for  knowing.  In  the  elementary  school,  therefore,  where  a  ma- 
jor problem  is  to  teach  children  to  read,  write,  and  use  numbers, 
every  effort  is  made  so  to  arrange  the  pupil's  work  in  the  class- 
room that  he  will  feel  the  need  of  knowing  how  to  read,  write, 
and  use  numbers,  in  order  to  accompUsh  purposes  that  he  rec- 
ognizes as  worth  while. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  first  grade  the  children  are  given 
opportunities  to  do  many  things  which  they  feel  are  worth  do- 
ing; they  paint,  model  in  clay,  and  do  carpentry;  they  cook, 
sew,  and  weave.  By  means  of  a  bulletin  board  containing  no- 
tices and  comments  concerning  the  class,  a  collection  of  attractive 
books,  and  a  discussion  of  the  value  of  knowing  how  to  read, 
a  desire  to  read  is  cultivated,  until  gradually  pupils  are  led  into 
reading  books  for  themselves,  with  a  motive  that  sets  them  will- 
ingly to  the  performance  of  the  hard  work  that  is  necessary  to 
the  accomplishment  of  the  task. 

By  means  of  visits  to  docks,  railroad  stations,  warehouses,  and 
markets,  pupils  learn  about  the  surroundings  in  which  they  live. 
They  come  back  to  the  schoolroom  eager  to  re-live  in  work 
and  play  the  knowledge  they  have  acquired.  They  paint  or 
draw  or  construct  in  miniature  the  trains  they  have  seen;  they 
set  up  miniature  warehouses  and  stations;  they  even  build  a 
miniature  city,  and  supply  its  needs  with  a  toy  delivery  wagon. 
With  the  guidance  of  the  teacher  they  dictate  the  story  of  their 
trip.    The  report  is  mimeographed  and  added  to  their  record 

12 


THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  13 

books.  Learning  to  read  and  to  talk  effectively  is  thus  a  recog- 
nized necessity. 

As  they  continue  to  do  many  things  which  have  a  social  value, 
children  soon  discover  that  things  still  more  worth  while  can  be 
accomplished  by  a  group  including  all  those  who  are  trying  to 
attain  one  result.  They  begin  to  work  together.  In  one  class, 
for  example,  several  children  were  working  individually  at  model- 
ing clay  animals;  the  teacher  read  them  the  story  of  Mowgli's 
brothers;  their  individual  work  very  naturally  grew  into  a  plan 
to  make  all  the  animals  in  that  story  and  to  give  a  puppet  play. 
Each  one  of  the  group  was  given  an  assignment  to  prepare  a 
part  of  the  material  necessary  for  the  play,  and  cooperation  was 
thus  practiced. 

Children  take  great  interest  in  boats  and  trains,  and  the  sub- 
ject of  transportation  is  a  fruitful  field  for  study.  Visits  such 
as  have  been  mentioned  provided  much  material  which  the 
pupils  cooperated  in  collecting  and  discussing,  orally  and  in 
writing.  Individual  study  also  grew  out  of  these  visits.  One 
boy,  for  example,  wished  to  learn  more  about  Robert  Fulton;  one 
tried  to  make  a  dugout;  another  was  provided  with  reading  mat- 
ter that  enabled  him  to  find  out  how  paddle-wheels  succeeded 
oars,  and  how  screw-propellers  succeeded  paddle-wheels.  Hav- 
ing secured  the  results  they  aimed  at,  they  reported  to  the  class, 
thereby  putting  themselves  under  the  necessity  of  using  effective 
speech  and  writing. 

The  pupils  of  the  third  grade  are  capable  of  conducting  cer- 
tain business  operations  needed  by  the  class.  This  involves 
much  purposeful  use  of  arithmetic,  as  well  as  of  reading  and  writ^ 
ing.  Here,  again,  they  are  making  these  fundamental  processes 
serve  them  as  means  of  securing  results  that  are  worth  while  to 
them. 

In  the  first  three  grades  what  the  pupils  do  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  classroom  teacher,  aided  by  special  teachers  fitted 
to  direct  special  kinds  of  work.    In  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 


14  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

grades  the  pupils  can  better  understand  that  abiKty  to  read, 
for  example,  is  an  accomplishment  to  be  valued  for  purposes 
somewhat  more  remote  than  the  immediate  ones  just  discussed. 
Hence,  in  these  grades  a  more  exacting  study  is  made  of  read- 
ing, spelling,  arithmetic,  and  penmanship. 

Two  features  of  the  methods  used  in  the  elementary  school 
may  therefore  be  emphasized.  First,  the  children  are  encour- 
aged to  learn  how  to  read,  write,  and  use  numbers  as  means  of 
carrying  out  aims  which  are  to  them  significant.  Second,  they 
are  led  to  discover  that  several  persons,  working  together  har- 
moniously, can  accompHsh  greater  and  more  satisfactory  results 
than  they  can  accompUsh  as  individuals  working  separately. 
The  tendency  of  every  pupil  to  do  things  and  to  be  pleased 
with  worthy  results  of  his  actions  is  fostered;  and  the  ability,  so 
necessary  in  a  democratic  country,  to  cooperate  with  others  in 
obtaining  a  desired  result,  is  cultivated. 

The  following  outhne  is  representative  of  the  work  carried  on 
in  the  third  and  fourth  grades: 

THIRD  GRADE — TIME  SCHEDULE 

9:00  9:10  Consideration  of  self -planned  home  work  or  planning  day's 
program. 

9:10  9:45    Working  out  those  schoolroom  situations  which  particularly 
demand  number  for  their  solution,  including  any  necessary 
drill  on  arithmetical  number  facts  and  principles.     (Four 
days  per  week.    Other  subject  matter  one  day.) 
9:45  10:00  French. 

10:00  10:45  Subject  matter,  including  history,  geography,  science,  com- 
position and  spelling  as  group  or  individual  interests  or 
needs  determine.  Some  of  the  silent  reading  may  contrib- 
ute to  history,  geography,  etc.  This  work  deals  with 
different  subjects  on  different  days. 

10:45  11:00  Physical  education. 

1 1:00  11:15  Morning  Lunch.  (During  the  light  lunch  period  individuals 
or  small  groups  contribute  to  the  class  through  oral  reading 
or  other  oral  expression,  dramatization,  etc.) 

11:15  11:45  Silent  reading  or  literature. 

11:45  12:30  Individual  or  small-group  work  directed  by  teachers  of  indus- 
trial or  fine  arts,  or  science. 

12:301:00    Music  or  literature. 


THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 
Fourth  Grade  Program 


IS 


Time 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday  |  Thursday 

Friday 

9:00 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

9:oc^:i5 
Special 
Work 

Arithmetic 

9:1s 

Reading 

45  minute 
Assembly 

Reading 

9:4s 

Social  Studies 

10:30 

French 

10:50 

Penmanship 

11:00 

Gymnasium 

11:30 

Morning  Lunch  and  Individual  Reports 

11:40 

SpeUing 

11  :SS 

Oral  and  Written  Language 

4th 
Grade 
Council 

12:20           Science                  or                        Music 

12:50     1                                  Lunch  and  Recreation 

2  :oo-3  :oo 

Fine  Arts 

Individual 

or  group 

work 

Household 

or 

Industrial 

Arts 

Fine 
Arts 

House- 
hold or 
Indus- 
trial Arts 

VI.    THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

A.    The  Junior  High  School 

The  junior  high  school,  as  a  separate  unit,  has  been  estabhshed 
in  the  hope  that  it  may  provide  a  more  purposeful  and  better 
unified  education  for  pupils  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years;  so  that 
they  may  face  the  responsibiHties  of  citizenship  with  a  more  in- 
telligent understanding  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  must 
live  and  work;  so  that  they  may  discover  to  what  kind  of  oc- 
cupation their  capacities  and  interests  are  adapted;  and,  finally, 
so  that  a  larger  number  of  pupils  may  be  led  to  continue  their 
attendance  at  school  beyond  the  age  mentioned.  To  accomplish 
these  ends  the  conventional  curriculum  of  the  seventh,  eighth, 
and  ninth  grades  has  been  reorganized  so  as  to  provide  each 
pupil  with  a  broad  range  of  experiences,  activities,  and  infor- 
mation, closely  related  to  the  normal  life  of  a  boy  or  girl  of 
twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age. 

The  following  schedule  shows  that  a  number  of  subjects  not 
commonly  taught  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades  have 
been  introduced  into  the  junior  high  school  schedule.  This  has 
been  accompHshed  by  increasing  the  length  of  the  school  day,  by 
lengthening  the  recitation  period,  by  introducing,  through  super- 
vised study,  a  greater  variety  of  work  into  the  single  recitation 
period,  and  by  reducing  in  some  subjects  the  number  of  periods 
per  week. 

The  numbers  in  the  following  table  refer  to  periods,  not  hours, 
a  period  being  fifty  minutes  net  time  in  the  classroom,  labora- 
tory, or  playground. 

i6 


THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


17 


Junior  IIigh  School  Schedule 
Hours  Weekly 


Grade 

1 

.a 

i 

•1 

£w 

1 

1.1 

ll 

< 

73 

VII 

3 

25 

3 

3 

5 

2 

4 

3 

3 

3 

VIII 

3 

2I 

3 

3 

5 

2 

4 

3 

3 

3 

IX 

3 

25 

3 

4 

5 

2 

3 

3 

2 

4 

♦Mechanical  Drawing  is  required  in  grades  7  and  8 


i8  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

B.    The  Senior  High  School 

The  senior  high  school,  grades  ten,  eleven,  and  twelve,  in  its 
present  form  differs  materially  from  the  form  it  will  probably 
take  within  a  few  years,  because  the  pupils  now  in  these  three 
grades  have  not  passed  through  all  the  primary  and  elementary 
grades  of  the  Lincoln  School.  Within  a  few  years,  however, 
the  senior  high  school  will  be  made  up  of  pupils  who  have  for 
several  consecutive  years  followed  the  kind  of  education  described 
above.  These  pupils  should,  if  their  previous  work  has  been 
successful,  be  able  to  do  more  mature  and  more  substantial  work 
in  science,  literature,  language,  mathematics,  and  history  than  is 
now  commonly  accomplished  in  secondary  schools.  They  should, 
moreover,  possess  more  highly  developed  powers  of  initiative, 
they  should  be  more  fully  aware  of  their  appropriate  individual 
goals,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  hope  that  eventually  gradu- 
ates of  the  school  should  be  ready  for  college  and  professional 
work  earUer  than  students  who  pursue  the  conventional  course. 


Vn.    MEASUREMENTS 

In  an  experimental  school  it  is  essential  that  both  teachers 
and  administrators  should  have  accurate  knowledge  of  the  traits, 
abilities,  and  achievements  of  the  individual  pupils.  The  school 
has  established  a  department  of  educational  psychology  charged 
with  the  responsibiUty  of  keeping  such  objective  records.  Four 
types  of  work  are  carried  on  by  the  department:  First,  measure- 
ment of  the  general  mental  abiUties  of  the  pupils;  second,  meas- 
urement of  their  educational  attainments;  third,  tabulation  of 
pupils'  ages,  economic  and  social  backgrounds,  etc.;  fourth, 
supervision  of  grading  of  pupils.  From  these  several  stand- 
points the  school  is  developing  a  comprehensive  set  of  records 
regarding  its  pupils. 

The  intelligence  of  each  pupil  is  measured  by  means  of  the 
Stanford-Binet  individual  intelHgence  examination,  and  by 
means  of  the  Otis,  the  National,  the  Terman,  the  Chicago,  the 
Pressey,  the  Kingsbury,  and  the  Illinois  group  intelligence  exam- 
inations. These  two  sets  of  measures  of  intelligence  are  re- 
corded, graphically  charted,  and  dupUcated.  They  serve  to 
acquaint  administrators  and  teachers  (and  parents  in  personal 
conferences)  with  the  intellectual  abihties  of  pupils,  and  they  as- 
sist in  explaining  and  correcting  irregularities  in  pupils'  work. 

The  charts  resulting  from  measurements  of  this  kind  show, 
first,  the  chronological  ages  of  the  pupils;  second,  the  pedagog- 
ical or  school  ages;  third,  the  mental  ages;  and  fourth,  the  "vo- 
cabulary" age.  They  indicate,  for  example,  that  the  school 
is  closely  comparable  with  t)^ical  pubhc  schools  in  chronolog- 
ical age;  that  in  pedagogical  age  Lincoln  School  pupils  show 

19 


20  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

3  per  cent,  retardation,  while  public  schools  in  general  show  35 
per  cent.  Similarly,  the  charts  of  mental  and  "vocabulary"  age 
reveal  the  extent  to  which  pupils  are  typical,  so  that  in  preparing 
dupHcate  classes  for  controlled  experimentation  in  the  future 
such  classes  can  be  made  closely  comparable  in  mental  ability  and 
development. 

Measurement  of  intelligence  is  accompanied  by  measurement 
of  educational  attainments.  Standardized  tests  are  given 
throughout  the  school  at  the  end  of  each  semester.  New  pupils 
are  tested  early  in  the  year.  Special  tests  in  reading,  spelling, 
social  studies,  mathematics,  etc.,  are  given  at  various  times. 
The  results  of  the  tests  are  recorded  and  charted  in  the 
same  graphic  way  as  in  the  case  of  mental  abiUties.  Each 
teacher  has  access  to  a  copy  of  the  tables  and  graphs  which 
acquaint  her  definitely  with  the  standing  of  each  pupil  on  each 
test. 

The  tests  which  are  used  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
examples.  Ability  in  reading  is  tested  by  the  Courtis,  the 
Thorndike,  the  Burgess,  and  the  Monroe  tests;  in  arithmetic  (in 
formal  skill)  by  the  Courtis  test,  the  Cleveland  test,  the  Buck- 
ingham Verbal  Problem  Test,  and  the  lUinois  Examination.  In 
spelling,  sentence  tests  are  compiled  from  the  lowa-Ashbaugh 
scale. 

Inasmuch  as  intellectual  ability  is  only  one  phase  of  the  pupil's 
equipment,  ratings  of  each  pupil  are  made  by  his  parents  and 
his  teacher,  in  respect  to  the  dynamic  quaHties,  such  as  initia- 
tive, industry,  resourcefulness,  leadership,  cooperativeness,  vari- 
ous personal  qualities,  etc. 

The  activities  above  described  are  primarily  meant  to  con- 
tribute to  the  effectiveness  of  the  school.  They  serve  to 
safeguard  the  child  against  harmful  experimentation,  but  the 
facts  elicited  and  the  records  built  up  should  also  in  time 
furnish  data  upon  which  definite  educational  conclusions  can 
be  based,  for,  as  is  well  known,  hitherto  educational  innovations 


MEASUREMENTS  21 

have  been  proposed  and  tried  but  have  rarely  been  closely  followed 
up.  The  records  of  the  school  should,  for  example,  throw  Hght 
upon  such  questions  as  the  vahdity  and  the  constancy  of  the  in- 
telligence quotient  and  the  reliabihty  of  the  various  achievement 
tests  now  so  commonly  used. 


Vm.    READING 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  section  on  the  elementary  school 
pupils  learn  more  readily  the  things  that  they  wish  to  know. 
If  the  abiUty  to  read,  therefore,  is  recognized  as  a  means  of 
accompHshing  an  aim  that  is  desired,  the  process  of  learn- 
ing becomes  more  effective.  This  is  the  principle  underlying 
early  instruction  in  reading  at  the  Lincoln  School.  The  mate- 
rial used  is  selected  because  it  has  a  relation  to  the  child's  interests 
and  previous  experiences.  The  spontaneous  dramatization  of 
stories,  after  they  have  been  read,  and  the  use  of  pictures  illus- 
trating the  things  read,  make  the  early  impressions  vivid  and 
engaging,  so  that  the  process  of  learning  to  read  is  carried  on  with 
enjoyment.  The  children's  curiosity  and  desire  to  be  able  to 
understand  what  the  printed  page  contains  are  stimulated  by 
the  devices  mentioned  in  the  description  of  work  in  the  first 
grade;  when  they  are  able  to  recognize  a  few  words,  they  begin 
to  read  stories  in  which  these  words  occur  repeatedly. 

A  series  of  games  in  which  drill  in  the  recognition  of  words 
already  learned  plays  a  large  part,  and  in  which  also  new  words 
are  met  and  learned,  is  used  to  carry  on  the  process.  This 
plan  is  devoid  of  the  elements  that  so  often  cultivate  in  the 
child  a  disUke  for  the  severe  effort  that  is  sometimes  required. 
As  soon  as  a  child  reaches  a  certain  standard  of  abiUty,  he  is 
allowed  to  select  books  for  further  reading  from  the  school 
library.  Thereafter  the  school  librarian  cooperates  with  the 
teacher  in  fostering  the  desire  to  read  and  in  guiding  individual 
taste.  Pupils'  book-notes  are  filed  in  the  hbrary  for  reference. 
The  frequent  occasions  when  pupils  need  to  consult  books  are 
used  to  encourage  good  habits  of  study  and  to  teach  the  use  of  ref- 

22 


READING  23 

erence  materials.    Standard  tests  are  given  at  stated  intervals, 
and  pupils  with  low  reading  scores  receive  special  attention. 

There  is  general  agreement  as  to  the  need  of  a  reconstructed 
reading  curriculum,  and  this  is  one  of  the  subjects  now  under  in- 
vestigation. It  is  necessary  to  make  an  analysis  of  present  prac- 
tice and  of  proposed  methods,  based  on  the  collection  of  data  from 
a  large  number  of  schools.  Meantime,  the  best  available  methods 
are  being  used  and  carefully  modified  in  such  ways  as  to  secure 
the  most  rapid  advancement  in  reading. 


DC.    ENGLISH 

From  the  first  grade  to  the  twelfth  the  aim  of  the  EngUsh 
course  is  to  teach  children  to  read  inteUigently  and  to  write  and 
speak  in  accordance  with  the  accepted  standards.  It  is,  how- 
ever, important  that  these  habits  as  formed  should  be  accom- 
panied by  increased  pleasure  in  reading  and  by  increase  in  en- 
joyment of  effective  writing  and  speech.  We  must,  therefore, 
avoid  the  mistake  of  treating  children  hke  mature  persons;  the 
ultimate  aim  is  maturity,  but  at  any  given  stage  of  the  pupils' 
development  the  habits  appropriate  to  that  stage  must  be  re- 
spected; normal  tastes  and  desires  must  be  used  as  the  means 
of  improving  tastes  and  refining  desires.  Fundamental  me- 
chanical skills — speUing,  punctuation,  grammar — must  of  course 
be  taught. 

In  the  elementary  school  the  entire  day  affords  opportunity 
for  oral  expression.  Discussion,  questions,  criticism  by  the 
teacher,  the  relating  of  experiences,  council  meetings,  and 
assembHes  provide  frequent  occasion  for  effective  speech  under 
varying  conditions.  Correspondence  with  former  classmates,  the 
composition  of  short  plays,  and  written  reports  on  experiments 
and  investigations  call  for  various  kinds  of  writing.  The  motive 
is  always  to  enable  someone  else  to  share  understanding  or 
enjoyment.  In  the  upper  grades  certain  class  periods  are  given 
wholly  to  Enghsh,  but  satisfactory  results  cannot  be  secured 
except  through  attention  to  clearness  and  correctness  of  ex- 
pression in  all  classes. 

The  problem  of  speUing  has  been  attacked  by  a  committee 
composed  of  the  teachers  of  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 

24 


ENGLISH  25 

grades,  and  the  teachers  of  Enghsh  in  the  high  school.  Using 
the  Horn-Ashbaugh  Hst,  which  is  made  up  of  several  hundred 
words  for  each  grade,  these  teachers  first  dictated  to  each  grade, 
from  the  third  to  the  eighth,  the  list  of  words  for  that  grade. 
The  same  Hsts  were  then  dictated  again,  and  each  pupil  made  a 
list  of  the  words  he  had  misspelled.  His  spelling  assignment 
for  the  year  was  then  to  master  the  words  in  his  Hst.  If  his  Hst 
was  short,  he  was  enabled  to  use  the  time  saved  in  doing  other 
work.  After  completing  the  six  lists  now  included  in  this  speU- 
ing  course,  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  speU  correctly  the  four 
thousand  words  commonly  used  in  correspondence — an  accom- 
pHshment  of  no  mean  order. 

In  order  to  insure  mastery  of  misspelled  words,  careful  in- 
struction is  given  in  the  method  of  learning  to  speU.  The 
permanent  mastery  of  the  words  studied  is  as  far  as  possible 
insured  by  a  series  of  reviews  so  planned  that  they  occur 
at  gradually  increasing  intervals  until  the  word  has  been 
retained  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  justify  the  conclusion 
that  it  is  completely  learned.  During  the  spelHng  period  the 
pupils  work  in  pairs,  dictating  these  reviews  to  each  other,  each 
being  responsible  for  the  correction  of  his  partner's  work,  as  weU 
as  for  the  completion  of  his  own.  The  fact  that  the  pupil  keeps 
his  own  record  and  foUows  his  own  progress  is  a  great  incentive 
to  thorough  study. 

Although  the  plan  has  been  in  operation  too  short  a  time  to 
permit  the  presentation  of  any  final  conclusions,  certain  good 
results  have  already  appeared.  In  the  first  place,  interest  is 
stimulated  by  directing  pupils'  efforts  toward  the  mastery  of 
their  own  known  misspeUings.  Besides  this,  the  record  sheets 
enable  teachers  to  pick  out  the  pupils  who  have  not  been  study- 
ing properly,  and  those  who  have  special  difficulties  in  spelHng 
and  whose  weaknesses  need  individual  attention.  It  is,  of 
course,  necessary  to  supplement  the  list  of  four  thousand  most 
commonly  used  words  by  recording  and  studying  all  the  mis- 


26  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

spellings  that  occur  in  the  ordinary  writing  done  by  pupils  in 
their  daily  work. 

In  the  high  school,  since  English  is  a  distinct  subject,  with  its 
own  definite  period,  the  relation  between  English  expression 
and  other  studies  must  be  maintained  by  planned  cooper- 
ation between  the  English  teacher  and  the  teachers  of 
other  subjects.  At  present  it  seems  that  such  cooperation 
is  best  promoted  by  enabling  the  teacher  of  English  to  spend 
some  time  every  week  in  attending  the  recitations  of  his 
class  in  other  subjects,  and  making  the  results  of  his  observations 
the  subject  of  study  and  instruction  during  the  English  periods. 

The  outstanding  aim  of  the  teaching  of  composition  in  the 
junior  high  school  is  the  mastery  of  the  fundamental  mechanics 
of  written  expression.  In  view  of  the  notorious  lack  of  such  mas- 
tery even  among  college  students,  this  may  appear  an  over- 
ambitious  aim,  but  it  is  probably,  to  a  very  great  extent,  within 
reach.  Through  lists  of  errors  made  by  pupils  in  their  writ- 
ten work,  it  is  possible  to  put  instruction  on  an  individual  basis, 
and  to  set  up  minimum  requirements  that  will  secure  a  more 
economical  use  of  the  time  allotted  to  English  in  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  grades.  By  the  end  of  the  ninth  year  pupils 
should  be  able  to  write  clearly  on  matters  about  which  they  are 
informed  and  in  which  they  are  interested. 

We  have  pointed  out  the  necessity  of  using  immature  taste 
as  a  means  of  arriving  at  mature  taste.  If  the  study  of  Uterature 
in  the  high  school  is  to  result  in  the  enjoyment  of  good  reading, 
the  books  read  must  be  carefully  graded,  so  that  the  standard 
will  be  always  rising,  but  never  too  high.  To  secure  such  a 
graded  list  of  readings  involves  selection  from  a  large  amount  of 
material,  through  observation  of  the  way  successive  classes  of 
pupils  react  to  it.  Selection  of  material  is  now  going  on,  by 
means  of  oral  and  written  book  reports,  in  which  pupils  are  en- 
couraged to  give  sincere  opinions,  under  no  fear  of  penalty  for 
failure  to  agree  with  the  judgment  of  adult  critics  or  with  tradi- 


ENGLISH  27 

tion.  Written  reports  of  this  nature  are  filed  in  the  library,  and 
through  their  use  it  should  eventually  be  possible  to  distribute 
books  by  grades  in  accordance  with  the  developing  tastes  of 
growing  children.  The  habit  of  independent  thinking,  gives  a 
real  value  to  this  collection  of  book  reports. 

In  every  school  the  last-minute  rush  to  finish  assigned  reading 
or  to  "bring  in"  an  essay  is  well  known.  This  hasty,  insufli- 
cient  reading  and  writing  can  be  checked  if  the  reading  and 
writing  are  done  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher.  Interest 
that  begins  under  such  conditions  carries  over  self-imposed 
tasks.  Class  work  of  this  nature  does  not  preclude  assign- 
ments for  home  study  in  the  ordinary  sense,  but  it  assures  the 
cultivation  of  a  proper  method  of  work. 

The  pupils  publish  a  small  magazine  known  as  "Lincoln 
Lore,"  which  provides  a  motive  for  the  most  careful  work 
by  contributors  throughout  the  school.  The  quality  of  its 
contents  is  due  to  a  standard  set  by  the  student  editors,  with  the 
guidance,  but  not  under  the  dictation  of  the  teacher  adviser. 
Other  influences  that  operate  to  the  same  end  are  frequent 
assemblies,  dramatizations,  and  the  exchange  of  letters  with 
pupils  of  other  schools.  The  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade,  for 
example,  are  carrying  on  correspondence  with  a  group  of  young 
students  in  Japan:  those  of  the  seventh  grade  have  recently 
begun  to  correspond  with  the  pupils  of  a  junior  high  school  in 
California.  Through  varied  activities  children  are  reaching 
higher  standards  of  appreciation  and  expression. 


X.    FOREIGN  LANGUAGES 

The  teachers  of  foreign  languages  in  the  Lincoln  School  aim  to 
give  their  pupils  intimate  and  practical  acquaintance  with  the  lan- 
guage taught;  they  wish  to  enable  the  pupils  to  think  in  that  lan- 
guage and  to  express  their  thoughts  in  simple  form,  to  understand 
the  spoken  language  and  to  read  it,  and  to  become  familiar  with 
the  culture  of  the  people  who  use  that  language.  This  means 
that  the  pupil  must  use  words  and  idioms  of  that  language,  not 
as  translations  of  English  words  and  idioms,  but  as  direct  expres- 
sions of  his  own  thought.  The  means  used  to  accomplish  this 
result  are  numerous  and  varied;  they  consist  of  pictures,  ob- 
jects, charts,  lantern  slides,  books,  magazines,  newspapers,  songs, 
games,  lectures,  visits  to  the  theater,  films,  correspondence 
with  foreign  pupils,  and  other  devices. 

The  department  is  at  work  on  the  problem  of  constructing  a 
course  of  study  for  the  junior  high  school.  One  of  the  most 
important  features  of  such  a  course  is  the  set  of  language  pic- 
tures which  serve  as  the  starting  point  of  instruction.  Here- 
tofore such  pictures  have  been  inartistic  and  crowded;  efforts 
are,  therefore,  directed  toward  the  production  of  pictures  that 
shall  be  attractive  as  well  as  true. 

The  nature  of  this  visual  instruction  will  be  illustrated  by  a 
description  of  the  work  of  a  seventh  grade  class  of  beginners  in 
French.  The  teacher  first  presents,  by  means  of  a  map,  some 
facts  about  the  geography  of  France,  so  simple  that  they  can  be 
understood  by  the  pupil  without  recourse  to  English.  Then,  by 
means  of  a  study  of  town  and  country  life  through  pictures,  a 
simple  vocabulary  is  learned.  Up  to  this  point  the  work  is  al- 
together oral,  but  when  the  vocabulary  has  become  familiar, 

28 


FOREIGN  LANGUAGES  29 

printed  matter  based  upon  the  preceding  work  is  given  to  the 
class.  Oral  discussion  and  drill  are  continued,  but  dictation 
exercises  and  simple  compositions  are  added,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  pupils  are  able,  without  looking  at  the  picture,  to  talk  in- 
telligently about  various  phases  of  French  life.  This  work  is 
supplemented  by  drills  and  exercises  with  phonetic  charts  and 
diagrams.  During  the  first  year,  grammar  is  incidental,  but  not 
accidental;  correct  habits  formed  from  the  start  are  strengthened 
by  instruction  in  formal  grammar  in  the  succeeding  years. 

Instruction  in  French,  German,  and  Spanish  is  available  for  all 
pupils.  The  program  is  so  arranged  that  every  pupil  may,  by 
planning  his  schedule,  acquire  a  writing  and  speaking  knowledge 
of  two  of  these  languages.  The  methods  of  instruction  just 
described  are  used  in  all  three  subjects. 


XI.    SOCIAL  STUDIES 

History,  Geography,  and  Civics 

Different  types  of  reorganization  of  courses  in  social  studies 
are  being  developed  in  different  classes  in  the  school.  Follow- 
ing the  presentation  of  the  point  of  view  and  plans  for  the  work 
in  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  ninth  grades,  there  is  presented  a  more 
detailed  outline  of  work  which  has  been  done  in  the  fourth  grade; 
then  the  work  as  given  in  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  tenth  grades 
is  discussed.  The  fourth  grade  outHne  is  being  developed  by 
one  group  of  workers;  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  ninth  by  another 
group;  and  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  tenth  by  still  another  group. 
In  later  years  duplicate  classes  will  provide  opportunity  for  full 
trial  of  each  type  of  course  organization. 
A.    Social  Studies  in  the  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Ninth  Grades. 

One  of  the  important  tasks  of  a  modern  school  is  to  acquaint 
pupils  with  the  problems  which  they,  as  active  members  of  so- 
ciety, will  have  to  help  solve.  Moreover,  they  should  feel  re- 
sponsible for  the  solution  of  these  problems.  The  study  of  his- 
tory, geography,  and  civics  is  supposed  to  contribute  towards 
the  understanding  and  the  intelligent  solution  of  contemporary 
social  and  industrial  problems.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether 
information  about  the  policies  of  Greek  statesmen  of  twenty-five 
hundred  years  ago  is  as  helpful  in  solving  national  and  muni- 
cipal problems  of  to-day  as  is  the  study  of  contemporary  problems 
themselves  and  practice  in  thinking  about  them.  A  revision  of 
the  material  used  in  teaching  history,  geography,  and  civics,  and 
of  the  method  of  presenting  that  material  has  long  seemed  neces- 
sary.   Such  a  revision  is  being  made  in  certain  grades  in  the 

30 


SOCIAL  STUDIES  31 

Lincoln  School  by  uniting  the  three  subjects  in  one  course  of 
study  and  by  presenting  the  revised  material  in  a  series  of  prob- 
lems chosen  as  the  result  of  an  inventory  of  civic  activities  in 
contemporary  life. 

Conventional  courses  in  history,  geography,  and  civics  contain 
non-essential  material;  they  present  this  material  in  a  way  that 
does  not  arouse  the  interest  of  pupils  in  matters  that  are  impor- 
tant to  them  as  citizens;  and  they  fail  to  establish  a  connection 
between  the  subjects  of  history  and  geography  and  the  current 
modes  of  living  now  included  in  the  study  of  civics.  By  an 
inventory  of  leading  contemporary  problems  and  typical  modes 
of  living  we  are  trying  to  prepare  children  to  take  an  intelligent 
interest  in  their  surroundings.  The  power  to  generalize  can 
grow  only  from  practice  in  generalizing.  The  social  studies 
course,  therefore,  should  give  a  sufficient  amount  of  properly  ar- 
ranged practice  in  thinking. 

In  geography  it  is  desired  to  reverse  the  conmion  practice  of 
teaching  countless  facts  about  the  location  of  cities  and  about 
the  boundaries,  populations,  capitals,  chief  cities,  industries,  and 
products  of  states.  Instead,  the  relationships  between  people 
and  their  environments  are  emphasized.  There  is  need  of  a 
course  in  which  pup  Is  shall  study  such  problems  as  why  people 
live  in  certain  places  rather  than  others,  how  their  activities  are 
planned  and  organized,  the  relation  between  metal  and  civiliza- 
tion, and  the  utilization  of  power.  Materials  of  himian  interest 
are  substituted  for  the  detailed  and  formal  content  of  conven- 
tional geography  courses.  Civics  also,  which  formerly  meant  a 
study  of  the  Constitution,  and  more  recently  a  brief  introduction 
to  civic  affairs,  contributes  subject-matter  to  the  content  of 
the  unified  course. 

This  organization  of  materials  in  one  course,  irrespective  of 
the  subject  in  which  they  may  have  appeared  in  the  traditional 
arrangement  of  material,  is  one  of  the  chief  features  of  this  type 
of  the  social  studies  work.    During  the  year  1920-1921,  as  a 


32  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

trial  of  material,  courses  were  organized  for  the  fifth,  sixth,  and 
ninth  grades,  including  discussions  of  the  growth  of  industrial 
life,  changes  in  the  way  our  people  live,  the  westward  movement 
by  which  our  forefathers  took  possession  of  the  land  between  the 
two  oceans  and  how  they  helped  develop  the  nation,  the  growth 
of  cities,  and  the  effect  of  geography  on  travel  and  settlement. 
The  organization  of  this  material  in  three  subjects  makes  it 
difficult  for  teachers  to  keep  in  close  relationship  matters  which 
really  are  closely  related. 

This  course,  eliminating  much  material  that  is  useless  for 
children  or  grown  people,  and  insuring  a  clearer  perspective,  in- 
cludes whatever  historical  and  geographical  material  seems  now 
worth  while.  The  cultivation  of  a  sense  of  historical  continuity 
is  not  neglected;  acquaintance  with  "sweeps  of  time"  and  his- 
torical backgrounds  is  arrived  at  by  presenting  events  in  se- 
quence and  by  contrasting  current  affairs  with  events  and  con- 
ditions of  earlier  times. 

By  teaching  only  such  material  as  is  valuable  to  people  in 
their  lives;  by  arranging  the  related  matters  in  one  course,  thus 
ignoring  the  artificial  barriers  between  subjects;  by  training  the 
power  of  judgment  through  exercise  in  judging;  by  using  chil- 
dreh's  experience  as  the  starting  point  and  filling  the  course  with 
details  that  are  of  human  interest;  by  these  means  it  is  hoped  to 
prepare  children  to  take  part  in  social,  industrial,  and  political 
life. 

B.    Social  Studies  in  the  Fourth  Grade. 

In  the  fourth  grade  the  social  study  course  is  based  upon  an 
examination  of  certain  problems  common  to  all  members  of  a 
community  and  related  to  questions  of  food,  shelter,  and  cloth- 
ing. Each  problem  is  considered  in  the  light  of  the  following 
questions:  whether  it  grows  out  of  the  pupils'  interests;  whether 
the  study  of  it  will  afford  them  a  variety  of  valuable  experiences; 
whether  it  will  furnish  means  of  developing  habits  that  will  re- 


SOCIAL  STUDIES  33 

suit  in  a  sensible,  useful  life;  and  finally,  whether  it  will  increase 
their  appreciation  of  their  dependence  on  other  members  of  so- 
ciety. 

The  class  work  consists  of  a  combination  of  study  and  recita- 
tion involving  the  use  of  maps,  charts,  supplementary  reading, 
excursions,  experiments,  class  discussion,  and  reports,  oral  and 
written.  Stenographic  accounts  of  classroom  discussion  and 
records  of  supplementary  reading  and  references  are  kept  on  file 
for  future  use.  By  the  use  of  this  material,  the  pupil  should 
acquire  information  about  geography,  history,  and  other  subjects, 
an  added  alertness  in  observing  his  surroundings,  a  questioning 
attitude  and  a  growing  ability  to  answer  questions,  an  intelligent 
understanding  of  the  simpler  aspects  of  contemporary  problems 
and  an  increasing  interest  in  them,  the  power  to  generalize  in 
simple  ways,  and  growing  skill  in  the  use  of  maps,  globes,  charts, 
and  reference  books. 

A  typical  problem  was  introduced  by  the  question,  "If  people 
could  have  only  one  food,  what  would  be  the  most  wholesome  and 
nourishing  one  they  could  choose?"  For  various  reasons  it  was 
decided  that  milk  would  be  the  best  single  food.  A  discussion  by 
the  class  and  the  teacher  resulted  in  listing  several  aspects  of 
this  topic  and  the  appointment  of  pupil  conmiittees  to  report 
on  them.    The  division  of  topics  and  questions  was  as  follows: 

Group     I.    How  much  milk  does  your  household  use  per  day? 

From  whom  do  you  buy  milk? 

How  do  you  use  the  mUk? 
Group   II.    How  much  milk  does  the  Lincoln  School  use  per  day? 

What  was  the  average  amount  per  day  used  by  the  fourth 
grade  during  the  month  of  January? 
Group  III.    Why  is  milk  one  of  the  most  important  foods? 

What  can  we  find  out  about  its  composition? 
Group  IV.    How  much  milk  comes  into  New  York  City  per  day? 

How  many  people  in  New  York  use  milk? 

How  would  the  health  and  population  of  New  York  City  be 
afifected  by  the  loss  of  milk? 
Group    V.    Where  is  milk  shipped  from?    Why? 

How  is  milk  prepared  for  the  market? 
Group  VI.    What  kinds  of  cows  give  the  best  milk? 


34  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

One  can  readily  see  hov/  the  various  classroom  activities  men- 
tioned above  become  parts  of  the  investigation  of  this  topic. 
Some  of  the  children,  for  example,  found  it  necessary  to  master 
certain  difficulties  in  fractions,  in  order  to  prepare  their 
reports.  In  some  cases  the  averaging  of  results  was  neces- 
sary. The  situation  was  admirably  adapted  to  the  learning  of 
arithmetic. 

Household  arts  played  a  part  in  the  study  of  milk;  the  children 
made  butter  and  cheese;  they  studied  the  growth  of  bacteria  in 
canned  fruit,  and  were  shown  lantern  slides  from  the  Sheffield 
laboratories;  they  studied  condensed,  evaporated,  and  dried 
milk,  and  how  to  preserve  it  by  means  of  heat  and  cold.  With 
the  cooperation  of  the  science  teacher  several  pupils  constructed 
thermometers. 

Various  questions  that  were  raised  from  time  to  time  led  to 
the  acquisition  of  much  valuable  information.  Discussions 
about  the  composition  of  milk,  for  example,  led  to  interest  in 
vitamines,  fats,  etc.,  and  food  values  became  an  important  topic. 
The  study  of  pasteurization  culminated  in  a  talk  by  the  director 
about  Louis  Pasteur,  with  opportunity  for  the  pupils  to  ask 
questions  about  his  work.  As  a  part  of  the  study  of  how  milk 
is  transported  from  the  country  to  the  city,  one  of  the  teachers 
told  the  class  about  her  visit  to  the  Sheffield  plant.  The  class 
also  made  two  trips,  one  to  the  Sheffield  plant  in  the  Bronx, 
where  they  saw  the  pasteurization  machinery  being  washed  and 
sterilized,  and  one  to  the  laboratories  where  analysis  for  bacteria 
is  made. 

At  all  stages  of  the  study  there  was  a  demand  for  written  and 
oral  English.  Discussions  were  frequently  held  and  reports 
made;  other  members  of  the  group  had  to  be  convinced;  intricate 
processes  had  to  be  explained.  At  one  time  the  children  wrote 
letters  to  an  imaginary  boy  who  did  not  like  milk;  at  another 
time  one  or  another  of  them  held  conversations  with  the  rest  of 
the  class  who  by  turns  impersonated  the  imaginary  boy  and 


SOCIAL  STUDIES  35 

raised  objections  to  the  selection  of  milk  as  the  ideal  single  food. 
Good  English  became  a  social  necessity. 

In  order  to  find  out  just  how  much  of  this  information  was 
reaching  the  pupils'  minds,  records  were  kept  of  the  questions 
asked  and  misunderstandings  discovered  during  talks  by  pupils 
or  by  the  teacher,  and  of  the  extent  to  which  reference  material 
was  being  mastered.  Toward  the  close  of  the  study  the  children 
were  asked  to  write  on  the  topic,  "How  the  Study  of  Milk  Has 
Helped  Me."  The  replies  were  regarded  as  indicative,  in  some 
degree,  of  the  extent  to  which  information  acquired  and  attitude 
established  might  be  expected  to  influence  the  writer  in  the  pur- 
chase, preservation,  and  use  of  food.  Without  quoting  these 
statements,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  they  did  show  recognition 
of  the  desirability  of  care  in  the  selection  of  food  and  of  knowl- 
edge of  food  values.  The  last  step  consisted  of  voluntary  re- 
ports by  pupils  on  topics  in  which  they  were  interested.  These 
reports  and  a  list  of  the  references  used  were  made  into  a  booklet 
by  the  class.    Following  are  some  of  the  topics  that  appeared. 

A  Modem  Dairy  Farm. 

Machinery  used  by  the  Sheffield  Plants. 

The  Manufacture  of  Butter  in  Ancient  Times. 

Breeds  of  Milk  Cows. 

Domestic  and  Foreign  Cheese. 

Our  Trip  to  the  Pasteurizing  Plant. 

How  "We  Pasteurized  Milk. 

Our  Trip  to  the  Sheffield  Laboratories. 

How  We  Sterilized  Milk. 

How  to  Make  Cottage  Cheese. 

How  to  Make  Junket. 

How  New  York  Is  Supphed  with  Milk. 

C.  History  J  Geography  ^  and  Civics  in  the  Seventh,  Eighth,  and 
Tenth  Grades. 
As  the  tentative  basis  for  the  work  of  these  years,  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Joint  Committee  of  the  American  Historical 
Association  and  the  National  Education  Association  are  being  fol- 
lowed.    In  testing  the  educational  values  of  history,  geography, 


36  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

and  civics,  their  limits  as  well-defined  fields  of  knowledge  are  rec- 
ognized, but  when  certain  topics  make  it  advisable  to  ignore  sub- 
ject matter  boundaries,  that  is  done.  The  aim  is  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  problems  and  the  complicated  nature  of  the 
modern  social  world.  Material  from  each  of  the  several  subjects 
has  been  introduced  in  so  far  as  it  contributes  to  this  result. 
Materials  from  the  several  fields,  especially  from  the  fields  of 
history  and  government,  have  been  collected  in  the  form  of  source 
studies,  pictures,  maps,  and  collateral  reading,  in  an  effort  to  de- 
termine the  minimum  content  to  be  drawn  from  each  field. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  possibility  is  being  tested 
of  presenting  world  movements,  emphasizing  the  participation  of 
the  United  States,  wherever  the  material  justifies  it.  Various 
methods  and  plans  of  organization  have  been  under  considera- 
tion. In  the  study  of  geography  in  the  seventh  grade,  emphasis 
is  placed  on  the  causal  aspect  of  such  changes  as  the  shifting  of 
national  boundaries  and  the  growth  of  populations.  It  is  not 
the  cataloguing  of  facts  that  is  important,  but  their  meaning  in 
relation  to  other  facts,  and  particularly  in  relation  to  the  pupil's 
own  surroundings  and  interests. 

The  eighth  grade  pupils  have  prepared  a  series  of  maps 
dealing  with  such  periods  as  that  from  1607  to  1660,  from  1660 
to  1689,  and  from  1689  to  1763.  After  carefully  analyzing  the 
historical  material  at  hand  for  a  given  period,  they  have  tried  to 
tell  on  the  map  the  story  of  that  period,  representing  by  appro- 
priate coloring,  for  example,  the  impetus  given  to  trade  by  a 
group  of  colonies,  or  the  effects  of  the  Puritan  Revolution.  The 
unique  drawings  in  "The  Story  of  Mankind"  by  Mr.  Hendrik 
Van  Loon  are  used  as  showing  the  possibilities  of  graphic 
representation.  Dramatization  has  also  been  used  in  connection 
with  great  movements. 


XII.    MATHEMATICS 

The  work  of  other  elementary  school  subjects  and  extra  cur- 
riculum affairs  often  furnishes  problems  that  can  be  effectively 
used  as  points  of  departure  in  the  instruction  in  arithmetic.  The 
pupils  of  the  elementary  school  have  given  bazaars  which,  with 
all  the  details  of  fixing  prices,  calculating  expenses  and  amounts 
of  sales,  and  making  change,  were  excellent  applications  of  arith- 
metic. Charge  accounts  at  the  school  supply-room  furnish  one 
basis  of  useful  drill.  Each  pupil  deposits  a  sum  of  money  with 
the  teacher;  one  child  goes  to  the  store  to  fill  orders  and  to  take 
charge  of  the  order  slips,  and  at  the  end  of  the  month  the  clerk 
of  the  school  sends  a  room  bill,  which  is  properly  distributed 
among  the  children.  They  then  total  their  slips,  subtract  totals 
from  their  balances,  and  carry  forward  the  new  balances,  check- 
ing these  with  the  amount  left  to  their  credit  in  the  teacher's 
record.  All  this  is  then  copied  into  their  bank  books.  Through 
this  and  similar  problems  the  children  become  somewhat  familiar 
with  such  common  business  forms  as  checks,  personal  accounts, 
bills,  and  discount  sales.  The  school  bank  administered  by  the 
seventh  grade  mathematics  classes  has  also  been  helpful.  These, 
however,  are  merely  illustrations  of  the  principle,  which  is  as- 
sumed by  good  teachers  quite  generally,  that  less  drill  will  be 
necessary  if  pupils  begin  the  drill  with  a  desire  for  mastery. 

The  major  effort  of  the  mathematics  teachers  at  present  is 
being  directed  toward  improving  the  work  of  grades  seven,  eight, 
and  nine.  Extensive  discussion  of  varied  efforts  toward  im- 
provement of  mathematics  has  resulted  in  agreement  upon  the 
following  important  considerations: 

37 


38  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

(i)  In  junior  high  school  mathematics,  as  in  every  other 
school  subject  we  are  fundamentally  concerned  with 
what  the  subject  can  contribute  to  a  more  useful  life. 
The  specific  purposes  are  to  make  school  studies  and 
life  out  of  school  mean  more  to  a  girl  or  a  boy  than  they 
otherwise  would,  and  to  give  to  the  pupil  more  ready 
and  accurate  control  of  the  numerical  and  spatial  rela- 
tions of  human  life. 

(2)  It  follows  that  each  year  should  give  the  most  intrinsi- 
cally valuable  mathematical  information  and  training 
which  the  pupil  is  capable  of  receiving  at  that  time,  with 
little  consideration  for  the  needs  of  subsequent  courses. 

(3)  The  content  of  these  courses  needs  to  be  selected  and 
organized  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  children,  from 
consideration  of  social  needs,  and  not  solely  from  the 
logical  requirement  of  mathematics.  The  rigid  classi- 
fication and  the  definitional  method  characteristic  of  the 
other  materials  need  to  be  discarded  in  the  first  learning 
of  principles. 

(4)  The  general  aim  stated  at  the  outset  will  necessitate  the 
inclusion  of  certain  elements  of  arithmetic,  intuitive 
geometry,  algebra,  trigonometry,  and  statistics,  although 
these  need  not  be  rigidly  classified  in  their  traditional 
divisions.  The  last  eight  series  of  books  published  for 
these  grades  have  accepted  this  principle,  though  it 
marks  a  departure  from  current  content  and  organization. 

(5)  Throughout  the  courses  the  idea  of  relationship  or  of 
the  dependence  of  one  quantity  upon  the  other  is  to  be 
emphasized.  From  the  mathematical  point  of  view,  this 
notion  of  function  is  the  unifying  principle;  but  from  the 
point  of  view  of  teaching,  the  basic,  guiding  principle  is 
not  found  within  the  science  itself,  but  within  the  chil- 
dren's learning  process. 


MATHEMATICS  39 

(6)  In  organizing  the  course  the  usual  emphasis  upon  the 
special  divisions  of  mathematics  and  the  customary  time 
allotment  should  be  replaced  by  the  introduction  of 
topics  which  will  insure  a  maximum  of  direct  and  in- 
tensive application,  flexibility,  and  significant  interrela- 
tions. 

(7)  The  mathematics  of  the  junior  high  school  probably 
marks  the  end  of  required  mathematics  for  most  pupils, 
and  hence  must  include  those  general  mathematical 
ideals,  tools,  and  habits  which  are  now  regarded  as  of 
maximum  importance. 

(8)  Geometry  furnishes  a  concrete  source,  setting,  and  illus- 
tration of  significant  number  relationships,  hence  meas- 
urement is  one  of  the  fundamental  processes  by  which 
the  pupil  may  discover  important  number  relationships 
directly  through  the  senses.  The  notion  of  the  unity  of 
space  and  nimaber  should  persist  throughout  the  course. 

(9)  Manipulation  as  an  end  is  to  be  ehminated.  Mechanical 
work  can  be  justified  only  when  necessary  for  under- 
standing fundamental  principles.  The  formulism  of 
ninth  grade  algebra  results  in  perfecting  machinery  that 
is  largely  useless. 

(10)  Attention  needs  to  be  directed  toward  a  better  apprecia- 
tion of  the  part  that  mathematics  has  played  and  is  play- 
ing in  the  progress  of  civilization.  Approximately  a 
fifth  of  the  public  funds  spent  for  education  in  these 
grades  is  devoted  to  teaching  mathematics.  It  would 
seem  reasonable  to  expect  this  important  outcome. 

(11)  The  material  can  be  vitalized  through  the  early  introduc- 
tion of  principles  that  are  commonly  delayed  until  the 
later  courses,  as,  for  example,  numerical  trigonometry; 
and  through  a  closer  correlation  with  other  school  sub- 


40  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

jects,  as,  for  example,  elementary  science,  mechanics, 
industrial  art,  and  fine  art. 

(12)  The  material  is  to  be  socialized  through  the  extension  of 
units  of  instruction  from  classroom  exercises  and  topics 
through  a  series  of  activities,  or  problems  requiring  co- 
operation, and  sharing  of  interests,  efforts  and  results. 
The  course  should  aim  to  give  rigorous  discipline  in  things 
worth  knowing.  The  ability  of  children  to  undertake  and 
carry  through  worthwhile  problems  should  be  recognized. 
The  course  can  capitalize  the  rigorous  disciphne  that 
comes  from  work  of  this  type,  instead  of  trusting  to  the 
discipline  of  drill  on  abstract  problems. 

(13)  Throughout  these  grades  common  sense  in  computing 
with  approximate  data  needs  to  be  exercised. 

(14)  Through  observation,  measurement,  intuition,  and  a 
consideration  of  elementary  properties  of  geometrical 
figures,  the  course  should  lead  to  control  of  symbols, 
vocabulary,  and  the  conviction  of  space  relationships 
which  common  experience  requires. 

(15)  It  will  be  necessary  to  continue  to  teach  in  these  grades 
the  necessary  social  and  economic  uses  of  arithmetic. 
The  more  technical  forms  of  business  practice,  such  as 
insurance,  brokerage,  stocks,  bonds,  etc.,  may  well  be 
placed  late  in  the  course  to  utilize  the  greater  maturity, 
experience  and  mathematical  knowledge  of  the  pupil. 

(16)  A  marked  increase  in  the  accuracy  of  computation  with 
integers,  fractions  and  percents  appears  imperative  in 
these  grades. 

Using  these  foregoing  principles  as  guides,  the  materials  for 
grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine  have  been  tentatively  written. 
These  materials  have  been  used  in  the  classes  of  the  school  in 
mimeographed  and  printed  form  during  the  last  two  years. 


MATHEMATICS  41 

To  test  the  validity  of  the  organizing  principles  upon  which 
the  proposed  junior  high  school  mathematics  course  is  based, 
and  to  provide  means  of  further  use  for  those  that  are  found 
valid,  two  types  of  investigations  are  being  conducted:  first,  a 
series  of  studies  aimed  to  discover  what  material  is  surely  or 
probably  useful  in  modern  life;  second,  a  series  of  studies  of 
methods  of  organizing  and  of  teaching  this  material. 

Some  of  the  studies  of  the  first  kind  are  as  follows: 

(i)  An  inventory  test,  which  has  been  given  to  a  considerable 
number  of  children  in  thirty  cities.  It  is  expected  that 
reasonably  complete  information  about  the  mathematical 
knowledge  that  sixth  grade  children  may  now  be  expected 
to  possess  will  thereby  be  obtained.  The  test  consists 
of  one  hundred  twenty-five  very  simple  elements.  The 
contents  of  courses  of  study  and  the  opinion  of  text-book 
writers  were  used  as  the  two  bases  of  selection  in  construct- 
ing the  test.  The  data  so  far  tabulated  show  a  very  low 
degree  of  mastery.  In  fact  less  than  one-sixth  of  the  test 
(twenty  problems)  can  be  done  by  80%  of  the  pupils 
tested.  This  result  suggests  the  need  for  more  specific 
objectives,  and  more  careful  study  of  drill  and  relearning. 
The  new  materials  now  place  great  emphasis  on  both  drill 
and  relearning  devices. 

(2)  A  study  of  the  work  now  being  done  by  the  mathematics 
teachers  in  fifteen  schools  where  experiments  in  mathemat- 
ics are  now  being  conducted.  The  material  appears  as 
chapter  XII  in  the  Final  Report  of  the  National  Com- 
mittee on  Mathematical  Requirements.  This  study 
makes  available  the  experience  of  a  group  of  well-trained 
teachers  who  are  given  greater  freedom  than  is  feasible 
in  ordinary  schools. 

(3)  An  analysis  of  the  contents  of  textbooks  now  used  in  the 
sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades,  of  several  French  and 


42  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

German  text  books  used  in  grades  six  to  nine,  inclusive, 
and  of  junior  high  school  texts.  This  study  presents  in 
vivid  form  what  was  taught  in  the  arithmetics  of  ten  years 
ago,  what  is  included  in  recently  published  texts,  and 
what  are  the  contents  of  junior  high  school  texts.  This 
study  will  be  a  means,  not  of  determining  what  ought  to 
be  taught,  but  of  throwing  Hght  on  such  questions  as  to 
why  certain  topics  appear  and  disappear  at  diGFerent 
times. 

(4)  A  study  of  the  frequency  with  which  certain  forms  of 
decimal  and  percents  occur  in  newspapers,  and  in  indus- 
trial, commercial,  and  household  art  journals.  This 
study  when  completed  will  supplement  similar  studies 
by  other  workers. 

(5)  A  study  of  the  frequency  of  use  of  uncommon  fractions. 
A  count  of  more  than  two  million  words  showed  less  than 
one  hundred  fractions  with  denominators  other  than  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  8,  10,  12,  and  16.  It  is  certainly  advisable  to  gain 
speed  and  accuracy  in  the  use  of  the  "common"  fractions, 
rather  than  to  spend  much  time,  as  we  must  if  we  use 
conventional  text-books,  in  drill  on  the  "uncommon" 
ones.  More  intensive  drill  on  fewer  elements  (the  com- 
mon ones)  seems  to  be  more  effective. 

(6)  A  study  to  determine  what  geometric  concepts,  principles, 
terms  and  symbols  can  be  taught  to  facilitate  general 
reading.  The  geometric  material  on  every  fifth  page  of 
the  last  five  volumes  of  Popular  MechanicSy  Popular 
Science  and  similar  readings  are  now  being  tabulated  to 
show  the  frequency  of  use  of  these  elements. 

The  second  type  of  investigation  consists  of  a  series  of  studies 
in  learning.  These  must  of  necessity  be  undertaken  by  many 
teachers  with  many  types  of  children  and  under  a  variety  of 


MATHEMATICS  43 

school  conditions.  Some  of  these  studies  are  narrow  and  specific 
while  some  are  more  comprehensive  and  less  definite. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  series  of  studies  to  determine  the  best 
ways  of  presenting  such  material  as  may  be  selected,  there  is 
cited  the  use  of  sets  of  cards  to  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  add  and 
subtract  common  fractions.  These  cards  provide  a  means  of 
focusing  the  pupil's  attention  upon  his  weak  points,  and  of  furn- 
ishing him  with  a  device  for  recording  improvement. 

The  most  important  of  the  investigations  now  being  conducted 
is  a  cooperative  study  in  which  the  teachers  in  thirty-three 
schools  are  taking  part,  through  the  use  of  materials  for  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and  distributed  in  booklet  form.  In 
the  preparation  of  this  material,  a  trained  observer  studied  the 
responses  of  the  pupils  while  they  were  being  taught  by  a  second 
teacher;  the  material  was  then  revised  and  distributed  to  the 
cooperating  teachers,  to  be  subjected  to  thorough  tests  in  their 
class  room.  One  of  the  tests  consists  of  comparisons  of  standard 
test  results  between  the  results  of  teaching  the  materials  just 
described  with  those  secured  by  teaching  either  the  more  con- 
ventional junior  high  school  material  or  standard  arithmetic. 
Another  consists  of  a  record  of  the  successes,  failures,  and  inter- 
ests of  the  pupils,  of  whether  teachers'  explanations  were  suffi- 
cient, practice  material  adequate,  terminology  clear,  of  the  ex- 
tent to  which  subject  matter  was  taken  from  the  children's  ex- 
periences, and  of  the  suitability  of  projects  that  were  used. 
The  cooperating  teachers,  when  they  have  finished  teaching  a 
given  unit  of  material,  make  systematic  reports  on  prepared 
blanks.  Finally,  measurements  are  made  of  the  extent  of  the 
pupil's  mastery  of  each  unit  of  material,  of  his  growth  in  skill, 
information,  and  power.  The  results  of  each  year's  teaching  are 
measured  by  comprehensive  inventory  tests.  From  a  study 
of  these  various  records,  it  should  be  possible  to  arrive  at  a  con- 
clusion as  to  the  relative  values  of  methods  and  materials  in 
teaching  mathematics. 


XIII.    THE  SCIENCES  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  science  course  in  the  high  school  is  at  present  arranged  as 
follows: 


I.    Junior  high  school. 

Seventh  grade.     General  science,  three  periods  a  week,  re- 
quired of  all  pupils. 

Eighth  grade.     General  science,  three  periods  a  week,  re- 
quired of  all  pupils. 

Ninth  grade.     General  biology,  four  periods  a  week,  re- 
quired of  all  pupils. 
II.     Senior  high  school. 

Tenth  grade.     Chemistry,  five  periods  a  week,  elective. 

Eleventh  grade.    Physics,  or  botany  and  zoology,  five  pe- 
riods a  week,  elective. 

Twelfth  grade.     Special  elective  courses  in  physics,  chemis- 
try or  biology. 

The  course  in  general  science  in  the  first  two  years  of  the  junior 
high  school  is  designed  to  consider  briefly  such  principles  of  nat- 
ural science  as  have  a  bearing  on  the  pupils'  surroundings,  to  en- 
courage the  formation  of  trustworthy  habits  of  observation  and 
expression,  to  interest  pupils  at  an  earlier  age  than  is  customary 
in  the  discovery  of  causes  or  operating  forces,  and  to  discover 
the  interests  and  abilities  of  pupils,  in  order  that  they  may  do 
better  work  in  later  studies  or  vocations.  The  course  materi- 
als used  in  general  science  were  developed  partly  through  exper- 
imentation in  this  school,  and  partly  in  similar  experimentation 

44 


THE  SCIENCES  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL         45 

before  the  establishment  of  the  Lincohi  School.  These  are  now 
available  in  printed  form. 

The  problems  of  the  seventh  grade  science  are  organized  about 
two  ma j  or  topics :  ' '  The  air  and  its  relation  to  everyday  life , ' '  and 
"Water  and  its  uses."  In  the  eighth  grade  the  chief  topics  are 
"The  use  of  machines  and  electricity  in  everyday  life,"  "The 
earth  and  its  relation  to  other  astronomical  bodies,"  "The 
earth's  crust,"  and  "Life  on  the  earth."  The  aim  of  the  ninth 
grade  general  biology  course  is  to  present  the  facts  and  principles 
of  biology  in  such  a  way  as  to  instruct  the  pupil  in  personal 
hygiene,  the  nature  and  control  of  contagious  diseases,  the  im- 
provement of  home  and  civic  conditions,  the  interrelations  of 
plants  and  animals,  their  economic  values  and  methods  of  im- 
proving them,  our  important  wild  life,  the  conservation  of  natural 
resources,  and  the  enjoyment  and  appreciation  of  outdoor  life. 

To  accomplish  these  aims,  the  topics  are  treated  not  as  re- 
stricted sciences  of  botany,  zoology,  and  physiology,  but  from 
the  viewpoint  of  biology.  In  the  classroom  living  materials, 
specimens,  photographs,  lantern  slides,  and  motion  pictures 
are  used.  In  addition  to  the  work  in  school,  the  class  visits 
nearby  markets  and  field  regions,  and  each  pupil  makes  an  in- 
tensive study  of  one  or  more  biological  topics  chosen  from  a 
list  like  the  following: 

Plants  and  Plant  Products  Animals  and  Animal  Products 


Beet  sugar 

Beaver 

Cane  sugar 

Bees  and  honey 

Coal 

Cattle 

Cork 

Conservation  of  game  animals 

Cotton 

Corals  and  pearls 

Linen 

Dairy  products 

Lumber  and  lumbering 

Fish  propagation 

Maple  sugar 

Furs 

Paper 

Leather 

Rice 

Oysters  and  shell  foods 

Rubber 

Poisonous  snakes 

Tea  and  coffee 

The  rat  pest 

Tobacco 

Reindeer  in  Alaska 

Tropical  fruits 

Salmon 

46  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

Plants  and  Plant  Products  Animals  and  Animal  Products 

Tropical  nuts  Seals 

Twine  and  cordage  Silk 

Turpentine,  tar,  pitch  Whales 

Vegetable  ivory  Wolves  and  foxes 
Vegetable  oils 

Since  pupils  who  elect  chemistry  have  had  an  introduction  to 
the  study  of  science,  the  usual  subject  matter  is  being  modified. 
Through  participation  in  interesting  experimental  work  the 
pupil  is  led  to  study  critically  his  own  observations,  to  gain  an 
understanding  of  the  few  facts  of  chemistry  that  are  likely  to 
appear  in  reading  or  in  daily  life,  to  become  acquainted  with 
reference  books  and  magazines,  in  order  that  he  may  know 
where  to  find  information,  and  to  appreciate  the  importance  of 
chemistry,  not  only  as  a  vocational  tool,  but  also  as  a  pro- 
fession. 

Pupils  who  elect  the  advanced  course  in  botany  and  zoology 
are  enabled  to  obtain  a  somewhat  comprehensive  view  of  plant 
and  animal  life,  to  make  a  more  detailed  study  of  life  cy- 
cles, structures,  interrelations,  and  physiological  processes,  and 
to  do  independent  work  in  the  laboratory  and  in  collateral 
reading.  The  course  in  physics  is  designed  to  unify  and 
extend  the  pupil's  previous  study  of  science,  to  give  informa- 
tion that  will  be  of  service  in  daily  life,  to  assist  pupils  to  discover 
whether  they  have  aptitudes  for  advanced  work  in  pure  and 
applied  physics,  and  to  induce  students  so  inclined  to  enter 
higher  institutions  where  they  may  continue  the  study  of 
science. 

In  addition  to  the  work  provided  for  in  the  curriculum,  a 
science  club  includes  junior  high  school  boys  who  are  interested 
in  experimental  work  for  which  there  is  insufficient  time  in  the 
classroom.  Boys  interested  in  all  fields  of  science  joined  the  club, 
which  now  consists  of  three  divisions,  interested  respectively  in 
chemistry,  wireless,  and  biology.  The  advisers  of  the  club  are 
the  science  and  industrial  arts  teachers. 


THE  SCIENCES  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


47 


The  following  program  which  was  presented  by  pupils  at  a 
Parents-Teachers  meeting  will  indicate  the  range  of  subjects 
included  in  the  various  courses. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  TOPICS 


1.  The  air  in  which  we  live 

David  Richardson 

2.  The  weather,  cyclones,  and  the 

Weather  Bureau 

William  Wadhams 

3 .  The  construction  and  uses  of  gas 

burners 

Katherine  Kosmak  and 
Carroll  Smith 

4.  Carbon  dioxide  in  modern  life 

(a)  Breading  Furst 

(b)  Elizabeth  Smith, 

Monroe  Barnard, 
and  John  Kiehl 

5.  A  few  animals  of  the  pond 

Helen  Speyer  and  Sto 
well  Rounds 

6.  A  few  facts  about  snakes 

George  Kosmak 

7.  Sulfuric  acid;  a  chemical  neces- 

sity 

Llewelyn  Summers 
8. '  The  lead  storage  battery 
Warren  MacMann 
9.     Some    construction    problems: 
the  Bunsen  burner,  steam  en- 
gine and  electric  motor 
Max  Parrish 

10.  Food  manufacture  in  plant  life 

Lillian  Katayama 

11.  Propagation  in  plant  life 

Wynne  Fairfield 

12.  How  Nature  protects  her  ani- 

mals 

George  Grove 


General  Science 

Seventh  Grade 

General  Science 

Eighth  Grade 

General  Science 

Seventh  and 
Eighth  Grades 

General  Science 

Seventh  Grade 

Chemistry 

Tenth  Grade 

General  Biology 

Ninth  Grade 

General  Biology 

Ninth  Grade 

Chemistry 

Tenth  Grade 

Physics 

Eleventh  Grade 

General  Science 

Eighth  Grade 

General  Science 

Eighth  Grade 

Advanced  Biology 

Eleventh  Grade 

Advanced  Biology 

Eleventh  Grade 

XIV.    INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

In  the  elementary  school  the  purpose  of  the  work  in  industrial 
arts  is  to  provide  first-hand  contact  with  raw  materials  and  with 
the  fundamental  processes  involved  in  transforming  them  into 
useful  articles.  In  the  selection  of  subject-matter  there  are  two 
guiding  principles;  first,  the  subject-matter  must  be  of  interest 
and  must  involve  work  within  the  range  of  the  pupil's  ability; 
second,  it  must  be  of  value  socially  and  must  illustrate  modern 
industrial  processes.  Such  subject-matter  is  found  in  the  con- 
sideration of  how  food,  clothing,  shelter,  utensils,  tools  and  ma- 
chines, books  and  newspapers  are  provided.  During  the  study 
of  these  topics,  questions  about  sources  and  preparation  of  ma- 
terials, about  manufacturing  processes,  and  about  the  lives  and 
character  of  the  people  employed  in  industries  naturally  arise. 
Excursions,  lantern  slides,  discussion,  and  reading  are  valuable 
aids  in  this  study. 

An  effective  method  of  developing  an  accurate  knowledge  and 
a  genuine  appreciation  of  industrial  processes  and  problems  is 
secured  by  using  clay,  cement,  metals,  food,  textiles,  and  print- 
ing.   The  aims  of  this  course  are: 

(i)  To  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  economic  and  social 
phases  of  industry. 

(2)  To  give  a  basis  for  an  elementary  judgment  in  selection 
and  use  of  industrial  products. 

(3)  To  acquire  sufficient  skill  in  the  elements  of  various  in- 
dustrial processes  to  construct  articles  satisfying  to  the 
pupil  and  illustrative  of  the  industry. 

48 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  49 

The  construction  of  a  playhouse  by  the  first  grade  and  the 
study  of  printing  by  the  sixth  grade  will  serve  as  illustrations  of 
elementary  school  work. 

The  playhouse  was  made  from  a  piano-box;  children  working  as 
a  group  planned  the  various  features  of  the  house,  and  carried  out 
theh  plans  by  working  in  smaller  groups  upon  different  tasks. 
Freedom  to  shift  from  one  task  to  another  gave  every  pupil 
various  experiences.  Working  in  this  way,  a  floor  was  laid,  and 
the  inside  walls  and  ceiling  were  painted.  The  size  of  and  ma- 
terial for  a  rug  were  decided  upon  and  weaving  was  begun  on  a 
hand-made  loom.  At  first  the  work  was  done  in  the  simplest 
way,  neither  heddle,  batten,  nor  shuttle  being  used,  but  later 
those  instruments  were  used.  While  the  weaving  was  going  on, 
other  groups  made  chairs  and  a  table,  draperies  for  the  windows, 
and  clay  dishes. 

Through  this  work  the  pupils  gained  first-hand  experience 
with  building  material,  with  textiles,  and  with  clay  as  potter's 
material.  Although  the  interest  centered  in  the  processes  of 
making  and  using  the  various  objects,  information  about  the 
qualities  of  materials,  and  about  methods  of  converting  them 
into  usable  articles  was  acquired  and  formed  a  basis  for  further 
study.  Much  of  the  work  bore  a  very  direct  relation  to  the  more 
immediately  intellectual  activities  of  the  children.  For  example, 
on  the  bulletin  board  were  posted  printed  reports  of  the  progress 
of  the  work  and  in  more  permanent  form  other  printed  records 
were  made;  measurements  involving  the  use  of  numbers  were 
frequentJy  necessary;  letters  were  written  to  absent  children 
telling  them  of  the  progress  of  the  work;  and  designs  for  clay 
plates  and  for  the  decoration  of  chairs  and  curtains  involved 
application  of  the  principles  of  the  fine  arts. 

The  sixth  grade  children,  who  were  about  to  conduct  an  assem- 
bly dealing  with  the  study  of  ballads,  printed  their  own  program, 
which  contained  material  suflSicient  for  a  two-page  form. 

The  various  processes  of  setting  the  type,  placing  it  in  the 


so  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

galley,  taking  proofs,  making  corrections,  locking  the  form,  ink- 
ing the  form,  cutting  the  paper,  and  operating  the  press  were 
performed  by  groups  and  individuals  working  simultaneously. 
Every  pupil  had  an  opportunity  to  work  at  each  of  the  major 
operations  of  job  printing.  As  part  of  their  art  study,  members 
of  the  class  made  designs  for  an  illustrated  title  cover.  One  of 
these  designs  was  chosen  by  the  class,  cut  on  a  linoleum  block, 
and  printed. 

Questions  of  spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation,  indentation, 
and  spacing  all  entered  into  the  problem  of  making  as  good 
a  program  as  possible.  The  adjustments  necessary  to  obtain 
a  satisfactory  proof  involved  much  painstaking  work.  When 
the  work  of  printing  the  programs  and  covers  was  finished,  there 
was  a  final  lesson  in  folding  and  assembling. 

Some  questions  that  arose  as  to  methods  of  printing  books 
and  newspapers,  and  making  illustrations  were  discussed  in  the 
industrial  arts  period;  others  became  part  of  the  work  in  elemen- 
tary science.  The  class  visited  the  publishing  houses  of  Harper  & 
Brothers  and  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  to  see  the  making  of  books 
and  magazines.  As  a  result  of  their  study  of  printing,  the 
members  of  the  class  gained  knowledge  not  only  of  the  hand 
processes,  but  also  of  much  of  the  modern  machine  work. 

In  the  junior  high  school  grades,  the  aims  of  the  work  in  in- 
dustrial arts  are  the  same  as  those  for  elementary  grades,  with 
one  important  addition;  it  is  now  desirable  to  offer  the  pupil  an 
opportunity  for  testing  his  interests  and  aptitudes,  in  order  that 
his  ability  may  be  developed  through  specific  training.  As  in  the 
elementary  school,  emphasis  is  laid  on  actual  productive  work, 
but  the  problems  chosen  are  more  complicated  and  difficult;  they 
are  representative  of  such  industries  as  printing  and  publishing, 
carpentry,  cabinet-making,  pattern-making  and  foundry  work, 
forging,  machine  work,  general  construction  and  repair,  and  work 
with  sheet-metal  and  concrete. 

Because  of  advantages  in  having  many  kinds  of  materials, 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  51 

tools,  and  machines  available  for  immediate  use,  and  also  because 
of  the  extended  opportunity  for  observing  many  distinct  types 
of  construction  work,  a  general  workshop  plan  has  been  devel- 
oped in  preference  to  a  number  of  separate,  specialized  shops. 
The  problems  taken  up  in  connection  with  each  one  of  these 
activities  usually  result  in  serviceable  and  useful  products. 

In  addition  to  the  studies  of  modern  industrial  conditions  and 
processes  of  manufacture,  which  either  accompany  or  follow  the 
actual  making  of  the  products,  group  excursions  to  local  manu- 
facturing plants  and  investigations  of  certain  phases  of  the  vari- 
ous occupations  such  as  health  conditions,  safety  improvements, 
qualifications,  opportunities,  wages,  conditions  of  employment, 
and  the  like  help  in  the  formation  of  judgments  as  to  the  char- 
acter and  possibilities  of  industrial  callings.  As  the  occasion  re- 
quires, pupils  read,  see  motion  pictures,  hear  specialists,  or  con- 
sult whatever  sources  of  information  are  most  needed  at  the 
time. 

Three  hours  a  week  during  each  of  the  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth  grades  are  allowed  for  the  required  industrial  arts  activi- 
ties. Carpentry,  concrete  construction,  elementary  cabinet  and 
furniture  making,  elementary  metal  work  as  needed  in  wood 
constructions,  introductory  printing,  and  the  related  drawing 
are  taught.  Although  considerable  freedom  of  choice  is  allowed 
in  each  division  of  the  work,  it  is  expected  that  all  pupils  com- 
plete the  minimum  requirements  in  each  activity  before  the  end 
of  the  year. 


XV.    HOUSEHOLD  ARTS 

In  the  junior  high  school,  the  purpose  of  the  household  arts 
course  is  to  acquaint  girls  with  proper  methods  of  doing  the 
work  of  a  house,  to  stimulate  liking  for  home  life,  and  to  make 
each  girl  familiar  with  the  means  of  providing  the  surroundings 
that  should  be  available  for  every  human  being. 

In  the  seventh  grade  a  double  period  each  week  is  devoted 
to  the  preparation  of  luncheons.  The  pupils  begin  by  becoming 
familiar  with  the  routine  work  and  the  essentials  of  meal 
planning;  then  they  themselves,  by  turns,  plan  and  direct  the 
meals.  When  it  becomes  evident  that  instruction  and  prac- 
tice in  some  one  process  are  nieeded,  the  luncheons  are  tempora- 
rily discontinued,  and  attention  is  focused  on  the  problem. 
The  program  includes  also  a  conference  hour  in  which  plans  are 
considered  and  criticized,  and  the  principles  underlying  the  work 
discussed. 

In  the  eighth  grade  the  pupils  select  the  furniture  for  a  house, 
arrange  it  in  its  appropriate  setting,  and,  by  using  reception 
rooms  in  the  school,  familiarize  themselves  at  first  hand  with  the 
cleaning  and  proper  care  of  the  rugs,  walls,  woodwork,  and  furni- 
ture. In  homes  which  are  available,  opportunity  is  given  for 
practice  in  bed-making. 

Through  the  cooperation  of  a  young  mother  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, the  girls  have  been  permitted  to  observe  practical  demon- 
strations in  the  care  of  a  baby,  to  hear  explanations  of  the  daily 
routine  involved,  and  to  become  familiar  with  the  baby's  cloth- 
ing. That  the  girls  should  become  well  versed  in  the  care  of 
children  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  part  of  the  course,  but  it  is 

52 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  S3 

desirable  that  they  should  learn  that  the  science  and  art  under- 
lying the  intelHgent  care  of  children  require  careful  study. 

The  last  eight  weeks  of  the  eighth  grade  course  is  devoted  to 
planning,  preparing,  and  serving  guest  luncheons.  In  this  work, 
greater  maturity  of  judgment  is  needed  than  in  the  seventh 
grade  meal  planning;  the  girls  now  undertake  the  somewhat  com- 
pUcated  responsibiUties  of  a  hostess  who  must  limit  herself  to  a 
specified  budget.  The  time  allowed  for  the  course  in  the  eighth 
grade  is  the  same  as  that  in  the  seventh,  a  double  period  each 
week  for  excursion  or  laboratory  work,  and  a  single  period  for 
study  and  discussion. 

In  the  ninth  grade  the  course  centers  about  the  choice,  the 
making,  and  the  care  of  clothing.  It  is  usually  in  this  period 
when  interest  in  dress  begins  to  be  a  strong  motive;  moreover, 
there  is  not  the  distaste  for  sewing  that  we  find  in  somewhat 
younger  girls,  and  there  is  a  more  thoughtful,  painstaking,  and 
persevering  attitude.  Add  to  this  the  practice  of  giving  con- 
siderable freedom  in  the  selection  of  problems,  and  the  work 
becomes  in  many  cases  a  distinct  pleasure.  Skill  in  certain 
fundamental  technical  processes  is  tested  periodically,  and  the 
tasks  are  so  chosen  that  all  such  fundamental  processes  are  in- 
cluded in  the  work  undertaken  by  each  girl. 

In  designing  their  dresses,  the  girls  combine  the  principles 
with  which  they  are  famihar  through  their  study  of  the  fine  arts 
with  the  processes  that  they  are  learning  in  their  household  arts 
work,  and  care  is  taken  to  see  that  the  aesthetic  principles  in- 
volved shall  influence  the  girls  in  all  their  clothing  problems. 

The  individual  abilities  of  the  girls  are  carefully  taken  into 
account;  the  pupil  of  limited  skill  or  experience  may  work  upon  a 
simple  piece  of  sewing,  such  as  a  bungalow  apron  or  a  smock, 
while  the  one  who  has  greater  natural  skill  or  has  had  greater  op- 
portunities may  be  doing  one  or  even  two  dresses.  Practice  in 
the  repair  of  clothing  is  limited  to  darning  knitted  materials,  the 
henmaed  patch,  and  the  study  of  common  rents. 


54  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

The  time  allowed  for  household  arts  in  the  ninth  grade  is  the 
same  as  that  in  the  seventh  and  eighth.  The  single  period  is 
used,  as  a  rule,  for  the  study  of  textile  materials;  physical,  micro- 
scopic, and  chemical  tests  are  employed  to  verify  the  judgments  of 
the  pupils  as  to  the  qualities  of  the  materials  used.  In  general 
the  aim  is  to  develop  a  reasonable  ability  to  choose  clothing 
wisely,  to  make  it  skilfully,  and  to  care  for  it  and  repair  it  eco- 
nomically and  sensibly. 


XVI.    FINE  ARTS 

In  fine  arts  the  studies  are  planned  to  develop  creative  and 
appreciative  power  and  to  enable  the  pupil  to  understand  and 
enjoy  his  surroundings  more  fully.  Since  critical  judgment,  like 
other  powers,  grows  by  exercise,  the  pupils  are  given  frequent 
opportunity  to  distinguish  and  choose,  by  means  of  problems 
with  lines,  colors,  or  tones,  and  sometimes  with  combinations 
of  all  three.  In  poster  designing,  dramatization,  and  other  ac- 
tivities in  and  out  of  school,  pupils  work  in  cooperation  with  the 
fine  arts  teacher,  and  apply  the  principles  of  art  to  their  every- 
day needs. 

The  kind  of  work  can  best  be  explained  by  giving  an  account 
of  what  is  done  in  certain  classes.  The  second  grade  pupils,  for 
example,  with  the  feehng  for  primitive  Ufe  that  is  always  strong 
in  little  children,  became  absorbed  in  planning  the  scenery  and 
costumes  for  an  Indian  play,  "Little  Burnt  Face."  After  visit- 
ing the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  to  learn  more 
about  Indians,  the  children  enlarged  the  three  scenes  which 
best  illustrated  the  story.  Each  pupil  then  planned  and  painted 
his  own  costume,  and  through  this  work  gained  not  only  a  knowl- 
edge of  primitive  life  but  also  the  beginning  of  appreciation  of 
combinations  of  shapes  and  colors. 

In  the  third  grade,  interest  in  making  a  setting  for  the  story  of 
" Sinbad  the  Sailor"  led  to  studies  of  Oriental  color  and  arrange- 
ment and  to  designing  and  constructing  scenery  and  costumes. 
Incidentally  a  visit  was  made  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  to 
examine  the  beautiful  collection  of  Persian  Miniatures.  Each 
child  afterward  expressed  his  opinion  of  the  stage  arrangement 

55 


$6  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

and  the  costumes,  the  best  designs  being  selected  by  a  vote  of 
the  class.  The  result  was  a  beautifully  staged  dramatization. 
Two  art  lessons  a  week  for  one  month  were  given  entirely  to  this 
production. 

In  connection  with  a  study  of  "How  We  Are  Clothed,"  the 
fourth  grade  made  a  study  of  weaving,  the  results  of  which  they 
made  into  a  book.  The  cover  for  this  booklet  was  designed 
by  the  children  in  the  art  class,  after  they  had  seen  the  collection 
of  early  American  coverlets  in  the  Museum.  They  attempted  to 
represent  in  these  original  designs  the  kind  of  patterns  that  our 
grandmothers  had  woven  in  their  quilts,  the  color  and  texture  of 
woven  cloth  being  suggested  by  using  crayon.  Title  pages  were 
afterward  designed  which  gave  the  children  a  study  of  artistic 
book  pages. 

Taking  advantage  of  a  class  interest  in  colonial  customs  and 
industries,  the  fifth  grade  made  a  study  of  the  types  of  design 
used  in  hand  weaving  and  textiles.  Each  pupil  planned  an  orig- 
inal design  suitable  for  a  hooked  rug.  An  assembly  was  ar- 
ranged later  in  cooperation  with  the  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade, 
who  contributed  the  results  of  their  art  study  in  early  American 
houses.  This  study  prepared  the  class  later  to  appreciate  a 
visit  to  the  historic  relics  in  the  Van  Cortlandt  and  Jumel  Man- 
sions and  the  fine  colonial  collections  in  the  MetropoUtan  Mu- 
seum. 

The  Elementary  School  gave  a  bazaar  to  raise  money  for  the 
Hoover  European  ReHef  fund.  Since  such  a  bazaar,  to  be  suc- 
cessful, needs  much  advertising,  the  sixth  grade  made  all  the 
posters.  These  were  designed  to  stimulate  interest  in  the  bazaar, 
to  advertise  the  various  articles  for  sale  and  the  events  in  con- 
nection with  the  sale,  such  as  puppet  shows,  moving  pictures 
and  interpretive  dances.  They  gained  not  only  experience  in 
designing  and  drawing  but  a  Uttle  knowledge  of  the  psychology 
of  advertising. 

The  seventh  grade  work  in  art  begins  with  a  study  of  rhythm. 


FINE  ARTS  57 

This  study  may  be  applied  in  many  different  ways,  depend- 
ing upon  the  interest  and  ability  of  the  class.  Last  year  after 
the  preliminary  study  of  rhythm,  the  class  visited  the  Metro- 
poHtan  Museum  of  Art  to  see  in  how  many  different  ways  ear- 
lier peoples  have  used  rhythm  in  their  designs.  The  Rhodian 
plates  inspired  them  to  make  some  of  their  own,  to  be  given  as 
Christmas  gifts.  They  made  a  plaster  mold,  built  and  shaped  the 
clay  on  this,  and  planned  an  original  design  which  was  not  only 
suitable  for  a  circle  but  good  in  pattern  and  color.  The  plates 
were  then  glazed  and  fired. 

Another  problem  from  which  the  seventh  grade  derived  a  great 
deal  of  pleasure  and  profit  was  the  representation  of  animals  in 
the  "Park  Zoo''  in  clay  models.  The  class  made  sketches  from 
life,  each  one  choosing  a  different  animal  and  drawing  it  in  vari- 
ous attitudes.  During  the  process  of  modeling,  several  trips  were 
necessary  to  compare  the  model  with  the  live  animal.  When 
completed  the  models  were  fired  and  colored,  some  attempting 
the  natural  color  of  the  animal.  At  the  end  of  this  study  the 
students  enjoyed  seeing  the  work  of  famous  American  sculptors 
in  the  art  museums. 

The  eighth  grade  makes  an  extensive  study  of  early  American 
history.  One  art  problem  which  has  grown  out  of  this  each  year 
is  the  study  of  colonial  art  as  shown  by  the  houses  and  utensils 
made  and  used  by  early  American  settlers.  This  has  necessi- 
tated trips  to  old  houses  in  and  near  New  York,  trips  to  the 
Metropohtan  Museum  of  Art,  and  reports  from  different  mem- 
bers of  the  class  on  old  houses  they  have  seen.  During  one 
year  each  student  designed  an  original  house  or  apartment  for  a 
family  of  moderate  size  and  means,  and  made  sketches  for  the 
furniture.  Collections  in  the  Museum,  illustrated  books,  and 
magazines  furnished  suggestions  for  use.  In  another  year,  in- 
stead of  applying  the  study  of  colonial  art  in  the  same  way,  the 
class  designed  and  made  some  small  hooked  rugs  which  were 
used  for  table  mats  and  pillow  tops. 


S8  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

Since  the  ninth  grade  is  the  last  year  of  the  required  art 
course,  and  some  of  the  students  have  no  further  class  study 
of  the  subject,  it  is  essential  to  round  out  their  brief  art  experi- 
ence, by  touching  on  any  type  of  art  study  which  they  have  been 
unable  to  make  before.  The  pupils,  therefore,  are  allowed  to 
state  their  preferences,  which  are  considered  and  included  in 
planning  the  course  for  the  year. 

Christmas  is  always  a  busy  time  in  this  subject,  for  the 
various  classes  need  help  in  designing  and  making  their  gifts. 
The  ninth  grade  work  this  year  was  of  two  types,  the  boys  choos- 
ing the  problem  of  making  Christmas  cards,  the  girls  making 
ties  and  dyed  silk  scarfs  for  their  mothers.  The  boys  tried  the 
three  color  process,  using  linoleum  blocks.  The  girls  made  a 
study  of  how  this  process  of  dyeing  and  putting  pattern  on  cloth 
has  been  done  for  centuries  in  India. 

In  the  Senior  High  School,  students  are  allowed  to  elect  a 
course  of  five  periods  a  week,  in  fine  arts,  provided  they  are  satis- 
fying other  requirements  for  graduation.  In  this  course  the 
work  is  planned  in  accordance  with  the  tastes  and  needs  of  the 
students. 


XVII.    MUSIC 

A.  Singing 

Cultivation  and  stimulation  of  a  love  for  music,  and  pleasure 
in  its  skilful  performance,  are  the  chief  objectives  in  the  music 
classes  and  choruses.  A  part  of  most  lessons  in  the  third  grade 
and  above  is  devoted  to  learning  to  read  music;  the  study  of 
phrasing  and  form;  and  practice  in  rhythm  by  walking,  march- 
ing, skipping,  and  by  beating  and  improvising  rhythms  on  the 
tambourine.  Encouragement  and  an  opportunity  to  compose 
tunes  are  given  to  children  who  have  written  verses,  or  who  need 
incidental  music  in  the  performance  of  plays. 

The  importance  of  beautiful  tone  quality  is  constantly  urged 
though  very  Uttle  technical  vocal  training  is  undertaken  in  the 
classroom.  Individual  lessons  are  given  to  older  children  who 
show  interest  and  possess  promising  voices,  and  to  those  who 
have  speech  difficulties.  In  the  classes,  the  children  are  given 
exercises  for  the  free  and  correct  production  of  singing  voice, 
breath  control,  and  enunciation;  and  great  care  is  taken  to  de- 
velop habits  that  will  lead  to  the  normal  use  of  the  adult  voice. 
Throughout  the  school  the  importance  of  clear  and  agreeable 
speech  is  emphasized. 

In  the  organized  work  of  music  classes,  sight-reading  and  vocal 
technicahties  are  subordinated  to  the  need  for  musical  expression. 
It  is  expected  that  as  pupils  learn  to  sing  with  enjoyment,  they 
will  also  acquire  a  working  knowledge  of  music,  and  an  intel- 
ligent interest  in  it. 

Only  that  material  is  used  which  possesses  real  musical  value 
and  which  is  within  the  children's  understanding.     By  this  pol- 

59 


6o  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

icy  we  hope  to  establish  critical  standards.  The  choice  of  songs 
when  possible,  is  correlated  with  other  work  of  the  classes. 
Festivals  and  special  assemblies  afford  natural  and  stimulating 
motives  for  the  careful  preparation  of  seasonal,  patriotic  and 
special  music. 

Occasional  assemblies  are  used  for  ensemble  singing,  group 
singing,  individual  performance  prepared  by  outside  instruction, 
and  for  recitals  by  artists.  The  thirty-minute  high  school 
chorus  meeting  each  week  is  given  to  the  rehearsal  of  songs  for 
assemblies,  to  music  incidental  to  the  programs  for  special 
occasions,  and  to  the  group  singing  of  favorite  songs.  In  order 
to  develop  general  interest  and  appreciation,  a  pupil  is  some- 
times appointed  to  prepare  a  story  about  the  life  and  work  of 
the  composer  of  a  song  that  is  being  rehearsed. 

The  pupil  who  leaves  school  with  a  store  of  knowledge  con- 
cerning musical  structure  and  with  little  or  no  enthusiastic 
appreciation,  and  the  pupil  who  takes  away  a  love  for  music 
and  has  learned  some  pleasing  songs  but  no  technique,  are  both 
failures  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  the  second  probably 
less  to  be  deplored  than  the  former.  We  are  endeavoring  to 
find  a  balance  of  emphasis  which  shall  develop  ability  and  pleas- 
ure in  singing  and  in  other  types  of  music  along  with  some 
knowledge  of  the  structure  and  technique  of  music. 

B.    Creative  Music 

For  want  of  a  better  name,  certain  activities  have  been 
designated  as  creative  music.  This  work,  which  is  based  on  the 
natural  evolution  of  music  and  musical  instruments,  involves  the 
making  of  percussion,  wind,  and  stringed  instruments,  and  the 
use  of  them  in  class  playing. 

The  aim  of  the  work  is  to  lead  children  to  experience  music 
concretely;  to  develop  their  understanding  and  power  through 
their  natural  tendencies  toward  construction  and  experimenta- 
tion; to  give  children,  whether  talented  or  not,  the  means  of 


MUSIC  6i 

making  music  on  instruments  suited  to  their  individual  capaci- 
ties; and  through  ensemble  playing  to  cultivate  concentration 
and  artistic  sense. 

Heretofore,  school  music  has  been  rather  an  isolated  subject. 
Creative  music  provides  the  possibility  of  educational  guidance 
through  a  sequence  of  musical  experiences  in  which  practical  ex- 
perimentation, constructive  hand-work  and  artistic  expression 
are  coordinated.  The  correlation  of  intellectual,  manual  and 
aesthetic  factors  contributes  to  the  pupil's  musical  develop- 
ment. 

These  activities  have  been  directly  correlated  with: 

(a)  Manual  Training — in  the  making  of  instruments  (using  the 

school  workshop) 

(b)  Fine  Arts— in  the  form  and  decoration  of  instruments  made 

(c)  Vocal  Music— in  learning  songs  to  be  played  upon  instru- 

ments 

(d)  Dancing — in  cultivation  of  a  sense  of  rhythm 

(e)  Science— the  physics  of  sound  involved  in  making  the  in- 

striunents  and  the  nature  of  the  materials  used 

(f)  Nature  Study — Birds  whose  songs  were  studied 

(g)  Mythology — Legends  of  early  instruments:  lyre,  Pipes  of 

Pan,  etc. 

(h)  Ethnology — In  the  study  of  instruments  and  customs  of 
primitive  peoples. 

(i)  English — In  presenting  accounts  such  as  the  following  pro- 
gram given  by  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades.  This 
program  also  indicates  the  scope  of  the  work  given. 

Grade  IV.    Percussion  Instruments 

How  We  Made  Our  Drums John 

A  Dancer's  Song Class 

(Some  play  and  sing  while  others  dance) 

Belh  and  Metal  Bars     A  Bell  Song Priscilla 

The  Tubaphone  We  Made    Monkey  Brown Richard 

Sleighbells Tom 

Time  to  Come  Home,  while  the  class  sings. 


62  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

How  We  Get  Music  from  Drinking  Glasses Natalie 

A  Glass  Quartet — composed  and  played  by  Janet,  Katherine,  Larry, 

and  John 
A  Glass  Quintet— Lavender's  Blue   .    .      Jack,  John,  Hugo,  Priscilla, 

and  Lawrence 

How  We  Made  Our  Marimbas Jack 

Twinkle,  Twinkle,  Little  Star  )  ^i 

Merrily  We  Skip  Along  \        ^^^^^ 

The  Minor  Mode Mac 

Two  original  compositions  in  the  Minor  Mode  by  Mac  and  Richard 

Wooden  Shoe  Dance Class 

Old  Mother  Hubbard — composed  by  the  class Class 

Grade  V.    Wind  Instruments 

How  We  Made  Our  Pipes  of  Pan Page 

Song  of  Syrinx  (  P, 

A  Beethoven  Hymn   J ^^^^^ 

Original  Wind  Instruments 

Barbara's  paper  tubes 
David's  curved  metal  bar 
Helen's  bottles  of  water 
William's  crab  claws 
Susan's  milk  straw 
Gourd  oboe,  explained  and  illustrated  by  Page 
Reed  trumpet,  explained  and  illustrated  by  John 
Reed  clarinet,  explained  and  illustrated  by  Sophie 
Chinese  tohe,  explained  and  illustrated  by  Claire 
Triton  shell  trumpet,  explained  and  illustrated  by  William 
Flageolets,  explained  by  Susan 

A  Market  Song  )  p. 

Good  Pierrot       } ^^^^^ 

Flutes 

Reed  flute,  explained  by  Walker 
Chinese  flute,  explained  by  Pauline 
Six-keyed  flute,  explained  by  Sarah 
Piccolo,  explained  by  Maud 

Boehm  flute,  explained  by  Elizabeth Florence 

Ocarina  explained  by  Thalia 

Original  composition  by  Susan,  Helen,  and  Sophie. 
Bird  Songs.     The  class  will  play  on  their  ocarinas  3  bird  notes  to  be  identi- 
fied by  the  audience. 

Moon  Song Class 

Day  Is  Over Class 

Grade  VI.    Stringed  Instruments 

The  Simplest  Stringed  Instrument Louise 

Tension  Bow Theresa 

Egyptian  Shoulder  Harp Nelson 


MUSIC  63 

Curved  Thehan  Harp Bud 

Two  original  instruments  designed  by  Alex  and  Charles     .     .     .  Lawrence 
Our  Chinese  Kins Donald 

A  few  original  compositions  on  the  Chinese  scale. 

Our  Gourd  Experiments James 

The  Development  of  the  Lyre Tim 

A  Greek  Melody  in  Several  Modes Class 

Original  Melodies  in  Several  Modes  .      .        Marion  and  Charles 

A  Gavotte  from  one  of  Gluck's  Greek  Operas.   On  Lyres — played  by  class 
Our  Cocoanut  Banjos Marion 

Jig  on  the  E  String  ) 

Yankee  Doodle  J Class 

Class  Jig  (composed  by  class)  ) 

"O  Susannah".      .      .      A  Negro  Folk  song,  sung  and  played  by  class 
Modern  Banjos Explained  by  Nelson 

"My  Old  Kentucky  Home,"  sung  by  class  with  accompaniment  played 
on  banjos  by  Nelson,  Tim  and  Charles. 

The  Lincoln  School  Orchestra  includes  pupils  from  both  the 
high  school  and  the  elementary  school.  Any  pupil  who  has  had 
instruction  on  an  orchestral  instrimient  may  become  a  member, 
the  purpose  of  the  orchestra  is  to  stimulate  interest  in  orchestral 
music,  and  to  provide  opportunity  for  sight  reading  and  ensemble 
practice.  Since  a  number  of  the  pupils  are  beginners,  music 
of  an  easy  grade  has  been  used.  Short  programs  have  been 
played  for  the  school,  and  selected  groups  of  players  have  at 
times  accompanied  the  regular  chorus  work.  On  one  occasion 
a  full  program  was  given  at  an  assembly  of  the  whole  school. 

A  limited  amount  of  special  lessons  on  violin  and  piano  are 
given  in  the  school.  This  is  done  in  the  effort  to  determine  in 
what  ways  and  to  what  extent  such  individual  instruction  can 
be  made  a  part  of  the  regular  educational  program  of  children 
while  in  school. 


XVIII.    PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  work  of  this  department  has  three  aspects:  (i)  Medical 
inspection  and  supervision,  (2)  Physical  education  and  recreation, 
and  (3)  Health  instruction  and  guidance.  The  general  purpose 
of  keeping  the  children  physically  fit  and  enabling  them  to  ac- 
quire and  maintain  the  necessary  vigor  is  carried  out  by  means 
of  cooperation  between  the  school  physician  and  the  physical 
education  teachers. 

The  school  physician  is  in  attendance  at  the  school  every 
morning  from  twenty  minutes  before  nine  o'clock  until  ten  min- 
utes past,  and  longer  if  necessary.  Any  child  who  has  been  ab- 
sent from  school  reports  to  the  physician  before  going  to  his 
classroom.  He  is  examined  and  if  in  a  proper  condition  is 
readmitted,  otherwise  is  sent  home  at  once.  Largely  in  conse- 
quence of  this  inspection  we  have  been  able  to  reduce  the  per- 
centage of  school  days  lost  from  15  per  cent,  to  11,5  per  cent. 

Once  a  year  each  child  is  given  a  complete  physical  examina- 
tion with  special  reference  to  defects  of  posture,  eyes,  ears,  air 
passages,  teeth,  heart,  lungs,  and  nutrition.  The  findings  are 
recorded  and  compared  with  those  of  the  previous  year.  At 
the  same  time  a  report  is  sent  to  the  parents  calling  attention  to 
any  defects  and  advising  that  they  consult  their  physician.  One 
of  the  teachers  of  the  school  is  present  at  these  examinations 
and  in  consultation  with  the  school  physician,  plans  the  correc- 
tion of  defects  which  may  be  remedied  by  physical  exercises. 

In  accordance  with  our  belief  that  exercise  in  self-control,  self- 
direction,  and  cooperation  is  an  essential  feature  of  any  educa- 
tional program,  every  opportunity  is  given  for  the  exercise  of 
initiative  on  the  part  of  the  children.    The  games  they  play  are, 

64 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  65 

in  many  cases,  of  their  own  invention;  the  contests  between 
teams  include  events  that  have  grown  out  of  the  play  of  the 
children  themselves.  In  planning  and  conducting  these  games, 
the  children  follow  principles  of  sportsmanship  which,  with  the 
guidance  of  their  teacher,  they  have  set  up.  In  all  grades  except 
the  first,  the  children  of  each  team  elect  a  captain,  and  very  early 
begin  to  demand  that  he  exhibit  a  high  degree  of  leadership  and 
maintain  a  high  standard  of  sportsmanlike  conduct. 

The  children  of  the  first  three  grades  play  games  which  require 
only  a  small,  though  gradually  increasing,  amount  of  organization, 
and  which  exercise  the  big  muscles  and  stimulate  the  heart  and 
lungs.  In  the  later  grades  games  and  exercises  that  require  more 
specialized  skill  are  introduced.  In  certain  phases  of  their  class 
work,  including  the  use  of  apparatus,  all  classes  are  given  tests  of 
skill  which  by  careful  grading  are  adjusted  to  the  abilities  of  the 
groups,  so  that  each  child  can,  with  reasonable  effort,  pass  all 
the  tests  to  which  he  is  submitted.  In  this  way,  not  only  does  the 
muscular  development  go  on,  but  there  is  also  developed  the 
feeling  of  self-confidence  that  results  from  overcoming  difiicult 
obstacles  by  persistent  effort.  Twice  a  year  all  the  elementary 
grades  meet  together  for  an  afternoon  of  games  and  contests 
between  the  two  teams  of  each  grade. 

In  the  rhythm  work  there  is  provided  an  important  oppor- 
tunity for  the  children  to  create  and  give  expression  to  their 
own  feeling  for  what  is  beautiful,  amusing,  and  interesting. 
This  is  carried  on  in  the  primary  grades  by  means  of  informal 
dramatic  and  singing  games,  and  simple  folk  dances.  The 
children  impersonate  giants,  elves,  Indians,  Mother  Goose  charac- 
ters, and  animals,  whose  actions  they  imitate  on  the  basis  of  their 
own  observations  and  imagination.  In  the  higher  grades,  folk 
and  gymnastic  dances  of  greater  difficulty  are  used;  here,  also, 
many  of  the  dances  are  origuiated  by  the  children  and  based  on 
the  natural  rhythms  which  they  enjoy.  These  dances  are  occa- 
sionally given  in  the  elementary  school  assembly. 


66  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

Besides  the  activities  for  elementary  school  pupils  already 
described,  which  are  provided  for  in  the  school  schedule,  there 
are  several  after-school  boys'  and  girls'  clubs.  A  fee  is  charged 
for  membership  in  these  clubs,  which  meet  four  times  a  week, 
from  three  o'clock  until  twenty  minutes  before  five.  Their  time 
is  given  to  out-of-door  play;  they  meet  indoors  only  when  the 
weather  is  unfavorable.  For  the  most  part,  their  activities  con- 
sist of  games  and  play  in  the  parks  and  on  the  school  playgrounds 
and  occasional  trips  on  Saturdays. 

In  the  high  school  the  ideals  of  sportsmanship,  cooperation, 
and  initiative  are  cultivated  in  more  highly  organized  games 
and  contests.  In  the  autumn,  the  boys  play  soccer,  football 
and  field  hockey,  or  practice  track  athletics;  in  the  winter  they 
play  basketball  and  other  games  indoors;  and  in  the  spring,  the 
playgrounds  are  used  for  baseball,  playground  ball,  or  track  and 
field  games.  In  the  autumn  the  girls  play  hockey,  soccer,  and 
baseball,  and  give  some  time  every  week  to  folk  and  natural 
dancing.  In  the  winter  they  play  basketball,  and  other  team 
games,  and  practice  natural  gymnastics  and  apparatus  work. 
In  the  spring  they  return  to  the  open  air  for  field  and  track  prac- 
tice and  baseball.  The  program  of  physical  education  for  pupils 
in  the  high  school  includes  four  one-hour  afternoon  periods,  a 
half -hour  period  each  noon  for  free  play  or  organized  games  re- 
quiring only  a  minimum  of  strenuous  action,  and  a  number  of 
two-minute  relaxation  periods. 

Physical  ability  tests  are  given  throughout  the  year  to  all  the 
pupils.  Pupils  are  thus  informed  as  to  their  physical  needs  and 
encouraged  to  make  special  efforts  to  improve.  Instructors  are 
also  enabled  to  grade  pupils  intelligently  and  to  adapt  the  exer- 
cises to  the  strength  and  needs  of  individuals. 

Competition  in  athletics  is  confined  to  groups  within  the 
school.  In  each  class  the  boys  and  girls  are  divided  into  two 
teams,  the  Orange  and  the  Blue,  which  are  in  competition  with 
each  other  throughout  the  year  in  various  sports.    The  captains 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  67 

and  the  assistant  captains  of  these  teams  compose  two  athletic 
councils,  one  of  boys,  the  other  of  girls,  who  assist  in  the  direc- 
tion and  control  of  the  affairs  of  the  two  organizations,  such  as 
schedules,  tournaments,  meets,  and  gymnasium  classes.  They 
also  have  a  voice  in  the  award  of  athletic  insignia.  The  two  out- 
standing competitive  events  of  the  school  year  are  the  mid- 
winter indoor  meet  and  the  spring  outdoor  meet.  In  these  two 
competitions,  all  the  Blue  teams  compete  against  all  the  Orange 
teams;  that  is,  all  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  senior  and  junior  high 
schools  take  part  in  events  of  graded  difficulty,  and  points  won 
by  individuals  count  for  the  team  score. 

The  importance  of  good  health  habits  is  constantly  emphasized 
throughout  the  school.  In  the  elementary  school  instruction  is 
given  by  the  grade  teachers  assisted  by  the  teachers  of  physical 
education,  elementary  science,  and  household  arts.  In  the  high 
school  this  instruction  is  merged  with  biology,  general  science, 
and  household  arts. 


XIX.    THE  LIBRARY 

A  broader  view  of  education  has  necessitated  the  development 
of  school  libraries.  Pupils  no  longer  study  one  textbook,  but 
in  every  subject  in  varying  degrees,  sources  are  consulted,  au- 
thorities compared,  and  pictures,  maps,  and  lantern  slides  used 
for  the  sake  of  greater  accuracy  and  interest.  A  school  library 
worthy  of  the  name,  must,  therefore,  be  a  vital  part  of  the 
school,  functioning  in  connection  with  every  department  and  not 
serving  merely  as  a  storage  place  for  material. 

The  library  in  a  modern  school  has  a  many-sided  task.  It 
must  provide  a  working  collection  of  books  which  shall  serve  the 
purposes  of  pupils  and  teachers  in  connection  with  classroom 
and  laboratory  work.  This  collection  should  represent  every 
department.  Mr.  Glenn  of  the  Lincoln  School  has  made  a  study 
of  the  distribution  of  books  according  to  the  different  depart- 
ments of  teaching  in  one  thousand  high  school  libraries  in  this 
country.*  He  shows  by  a  series  of  graphs  the  unequal  distribu- 
tion of  books  which  has  sometimes  resulted  in  the  idea  that  the 
school  library  belongs  primarily  to  the  EngUsh  and  History  De- 
partments. His  study  should  be  of  value  in  encouraging  a  more 
nearly  equal  distribution  of  books,  and  in  arousing  greater  in- 
terest on  the  part  of  teachers  of  science,  industrial  arts,  mathe- 
matics, household  and  fine  arts  in  cooperating  with  the  Library. 

Books  for  general  reading  which  will  broaden  the  interest  of 
pupils  and  help  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  good  reading  are  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  library.  Once  it  would  have  been  an  almost 
revolutionary  idea  to  think  that  a  school  library,  where  children 

*School,  Science  and  Mathematics,  March,  1921,  Library  Journalf  March 
15  and  April  i,  1921. 

68 


THE  LIBRARY  69 

may  go  and  select  freely  from  the  shelves,  might  be  a  substitute 
for  a  list  of  required  reading.  There  must  be,  of  course,  guidance 
from  teachers  and  librarian,  and  lists  of  various  types  to  stim- 
ulate interest,  but  even  so,  the  reading  done  by  boys  and  girls 
will  become,  under  these  conditions,  something  genuine  and 
spontaneous. 

There  must  also  be  provided  books,  pamphlets,  and  other 
material  which  will  aid  in  the  choice  of  vocations,  and  a  collec- 
tion of  illustrative  material — pictures  of  industries  and  mechan- 
ical processes,  postcards,  lantern  slides,  stereoscope  pictures, 
trade  catalogues,  etc. — classified  and  indexed  so  that  it  is  easily 
available  for  the  use  of  every  department  in  the  school. 

The  library  of  the  Lincoln  School  is  equipped  with  a  card 
catalogue,  magazine  indexes,  and  important  reference  books. 
Systematic  instruction  in  the  use  of  the  Hbrary  is  given  in  order 
that  pupils  may  be  able  to  make  intelligent  use  of  this  and  also 
of  larger  libraries.  At  the  same  time  these  lessons  are  not  addi- 
tional tasks  for  which  pupils  and  teachers  must  take  time  from  an 
already  well-filled  program;  they  are  a  part  of  the  curriculum. 
For  example,  geography  is  a  subject  with  which  this  work 
combines  easily;  for  two  years  therefore  a  course  of  ten  lessons  in 
the  use  of  the  library  has  been  given  to  the  seventh  grade 
in  connection  with  their  geography  work.  The  class  met 
sometimes  in  the  hbrary  and  sometimes  in  the  classroom.  The 
teaching  was  done  jointly  by  geography  teacher  and  hbrarian. 
When  the  librarian  had  explained  a  reference  book  to  the  class, 
the  teacher  added  comments  on  its  value  with  reference  to  work 
the  class  was  doing  at  that  time. 

The  children  were  given,  first,  a  lesson  in  the  printed  parts  of  a 
book,  table  of  contents,  index,  etc.  They  put  their  knowledge  in- 
to practice  by  using  the  index  to  discover  what  information  about 
the  products  of  France  could  be  found  in  the  books  available. 
Later,  after  the  class  had  been  shown  the  proper  form  of  entry, 
these  references  were  combined  into  a  bibhography.  The  meaning 


70  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

of  the  copyright  date  was  discussed,  and  its  importance  brought 
home  by  asking  the  class  to  decide  which  book  of  those  they  had 
examined  contained  probably  the  most  up-to-date  material. 

After  using  such  books  as  Allen's  "Europe,"  J.  Russell  Smith's 
**  Commerce  and  Industry,"  etc.,  they  learned  how  they  could 
supplement  this  material  by  such  reference  books  as  Mawson^s 
"Geographical  Manual,"  the  World  Almanac,  the  Statesman's 
Yearbook,  U.  S.  Statistical  Abstracts,  etc.  After  they  had 
learned  to  handle  the  individual  books  readily,  they  were  shown 
the  arrangement  of  books  on  the  shelves;  that  is,  how  the  books 
are  grouped  by  subjects.  Then  the  use  of  the  card  catalogue 
was  explained  to  them;  how,  for  example,  they  could  find  what 
books  the  library  contained  on  a  certain  subject,  what  books  by  a 
certain  author  were  in  the  library  and  whether  the  Hbrary  con- 
tained a  book  with  a  given  title.  Several  children  then  went  to  the 
catalogue  in  turn,  the  first  finding  the  group  of  cards  which  repre- 
sented the  books  or  parts  of  books  in  the  Hbrary  on  a  specified 
topic,  while  one  or  two  others  read  off  the  references  by  author, 
title,  and  call  number.  The  class  made  a  list  of  these  as  they 
were  read  and  certain  children  went  to  the  shelves  to  find  the 
books.  Instead  of  a  formal  test  at  the  end,  the  class  spent  a 
period  in  the  library  putting  into  practice  the  knowledge  they 
had  gained  in  using  the  library's  resources,  by  locating  material 
independently  for  their  next  topic  in  geography.  Lessons  in  the 
use  of  the  library  have  been  given  to  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth 
grades  in  connection  with  general  science,  English,  social  studies, 
biology,  and  chemistry. 

The  library  in  the  Lincoln  School  works  with  the  elementary 
school  as  well  as  with  the  high  school.  It  provides  for  the  chil- 
dren's home  reading  or  for  reading  which  may  be  done  during 
school  hours,  books  which  are  used  by  the  grade  teachers  and  the 
librarian,  working  in  cooperation  to  stimulate  reading,  to  supple- 
ment the  course  of  study,  and  to  help  in  guiding  the  individual 
interests  aroused  by  the  course  of  study.    Brief  talks  about 


THE  LIBRARY  71 

books  are  given  to  the  grades,  and  stories  are  told  by  the  librarian 
to  arouse  interest.  Annotated  lists  are  sent  to  the  classrooms  to 
aid  the  children  in  choosing  the  books  they  wish  to  read.  Rec- 
ords are  kept  of  the  reading  done  by  individual  pupils. 

The  Elementary  School  pupils  also  use  the  Ubrary  for  reference 
work  as  groups  and  as  individuals.  Thus,  seven  members  of 
the  third  grade  wrote  letters  to  the  Hbrarian  stating  a  point  on 
which  they  wanted  information.  There  were  such  questions  as, 
"How  do  dragon-fly  nymphs  turn  into  dragon  flies?"  "Some- 
thing about  caddisfly  cases,"  "A  book  that  will  tell  about  making 
a  siphon."  These  letters  were  sent  to  the  library  beforehand 
so  that  the  hbrarian,  consulting  with  the  class  teacher  and  the 
science  teachers,  could  provide  material  simple  enough  for  use. 
They  not  only  found  the  facts  they  needed,  but  learned  that  the 
Hbrary  was  a  useful  place  when  they  needed  information.  Brief 
descriptive  reports  about  the  books  they  had  read  were  written 
by  the  pupils,  in  order  to  help  other  children  to  know  whether 
they  wished  to  read  these  books,  and  to  help  the  librarian  and 
the  teachers  to  study  the  children's  reading  tastes.  A  file  of 
these  notes  written  by  pupils  of  all  grades  from  the  third  to  the 
twelfth  is  kept  in  the  hbrary  where  the  children  have  access  to  it. 

The  use  of  the  Ubrary  for  reading  and  reference  work,  involv- 
ing, as  it  does,  care  of  books,  promptness  in  returning  them,  and 
courtesy  in  the  reading  room,  is  an  important  factor  in  cultivat- 
ing the  ideals  of  responsibihty  and  consideration  for  others  which 
belong  particularly  to  a  democratic  school.  From  time  to  time, 
assembly  exercises  are  held  at  which  the  pupils  present  dis- 
cussions about  how  books  are  written,  printed  and  manufactured 
and  about  the  proper  care  of  both  hbrary  and  text  books. 

The  library,  therefore,  instead  of  being  a  collection  of  books 
and  pictures  which  constitute  a  separate  department  of  the 
school,  is  really  an  organic  part  of  the  work  of  instruction  in 
every  subject  taught,  and  the  Hbrarian  is  a  regular  member  of 
the  school's  staff  of  teachers. 


XX.    STUDENT  ACTIVITIES 

I.  Educational  Excursions. 

Access  to  museums,  parks,  and  other  places  of  interest  is  often 
desirable.  In  order  to  conduct  such  excursions  with  small  loss 
of  time,  the  school  provides  a  motor  bus  large  enough  to  carry 
an  entire  class  and  the  teacher,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  make 
short  trips  without  interrupting  the  program.  Plans  for  excur- 
sions are  passed  upon  and  approved  by  a  member  of  the  staff 
charged  with  that  duty. 

II.  The  Student  Councils. 

The  pupils  of  the  first  six  grades  have  organized  a  council  of 
representatives  elected  by  each  class.  These  representatives, 
and  a  cooperating  teacher  constitute  a  governing  body  whose 
members,  though  they  do  not  assume  full  responsibiUty  for  self- 
government,  have  opportunity  to  exert  strong  influence.  The 
constitution,  and  rules  of  procedure  of  the  student  councils  are 
available  for  any  who  are  interested  in  elementary  school  coun- 
cils. 

The  high  school  council  offers  opportunity  for  the  older  pupils 
to  assume  greater  responsibiUty.  It  satisfies  the  need  for  free 
discussion  and  for  the  establishment  of  school  tradition.  Most 
of  the  business  is  in  the  form  of  discussion  of  student  problems 
and  voting  on  the  reports  of  instructed  committees. 

III.  Standing  Committees. 

Various  routine  matters  are  carried  on  by  standing  committees 
of  pupils  operating  under  the  student  councils.  The  lunch- 
room committee  is  charged  with  supervision  of  the  appearance 
and  conduct  of  pupils  in  the  lunchroom  and  during  the  informal 
supplementary  luncheons.    The  Bulletin  Board  Conmiittee  su- 

72 


STUDENT  ACTIVITIES  73 

pervises  the  use  of  the  bulletin  boards,  so  as  to  avoid  conflicts. 
The  Fire  Drill  Committee  attempts  the  effective  administration  of 
fire  drills.  The  Lost  and  Found  Committee  collects  all  articles 
lost  in  the  building;  the  pupil  in  charge  is  paid  for  his  services 
from  the  proceeds  of  fines  levied  for  the  return  of  lost  articles  and 
from  receipts  from  the  sale  of  unclaimed  articles.  The  PubUcity 
Committee  keeps  the  pupils  informed  of  the  work  of  the  student 
councils,  by  making  reports  at  class  meetings. 

For  more  than  two  years  the  Insignia  Committee  worked  to 
develop  a  system  of  giving  recognition  to  pupils  of  unusual  merit 
in  citizenship,  athletics,  and  scholarship.  The  plan  as  finally 
adopted  in  an  assembly  of  the  whole  school  provides  that  pupils 
be  ranked  on  the  basis  of  various  tests,  and  that  permission  to 
wear  a  special  school  pin  be  granted  to  those  in  the  upper  fifteen 
per  cent,  in  an]/-  of  the  three  fields. 

The  Discipline  Committee  aims  to  secure  proper  conduct  in 
halls  and  in  the  elevator.  A  pupil  reported  for  misconduct  is 
given  a  hearing;  if  he  is  dissatisfied  with  the  committee's  decision, 
he  may  appeal  to  the  director  or  to  the  principal  of  the  high 
school.  Of  the  eight  members  of  the  Discipline  Committee,  two 
are  members  of  the  council  and  hold  oflfice  throughout  the  year; 
the  other  six  are  appointed  from  the  high  school  at  large  at  the 
beginning  of  each  month.  The  duties  of  the  Library  Committee 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  Discipline  Committee;  its  members  aid 
the  librarian,  by  imposing  penalties  when  necessary,  in  collecting 
overdue  books  and  discouraging  careless  handling  of  books. 

Besides  these  routine  matters,  the  council  issues  charters  to 
clubs,  encourages  the  composition  of  songs  and  cheers,  entertains 
visitors  from  other  schools,  and  conducts  such  special  projects  as 
health  campaigns,  school  parties,  bazaars,  and  athletic  meets. 
In  cooperation  with  teachers  it  plays  a  very  large  part  in  promot- 
ing the  best  interests  of  the  school.  The  school  is  not  "self- 
governed"  but  full  cooperation  between  pupils  and  teachers  is 
desired  as  a  means  of  developing  proper  school  government. 


74  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

rV.     The  Student  Employment  Bureau. 

The  student  employment  bureau  is  under  the  supervision  of 
two  teachers  who  make  all  appointments  and  check  all  claims  for 
payment.  Through  it  the  older  pupils  find  useful  and  instructive 
employment  in  the  school  out  of  class  hours.  Pupils  from  all 
classes  of  homes  are  given  opportunity,  under  supervision,  to  do 
such  work  as  checking  and  receiving  pay  in  the  lunchroom,  as- 
sisting in  the  library  or  classroom,  scoring  test  papers,  printing  an- 
nouncements and  school  forms,  mimeographing,  and  construct- 
ing and  repairing  school  furniture.  The  amount  paid  for  work 
varies  from  twelve  to  thirty  cents  an  hour,  the  rate  being  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  of  the  work  and  the  quality  of  the  service. 
Although  no  pupils  are  able  to  give  more  than  a  few  hours  a 
week  to  such  work,  almost  all  the  high  school  students  do  some 
of  it  during  the  year.  Such  tasks  make  it  possible  for  pupils  to 
use  their  special  abilities  outside  the  classroom  and  furnish  an 
excellent  substitute  for  the  responsibilities  assumed  by  children 
in  small  communities. 

V.  The  School  Bank. 

A  bank  is  operated  in  connection  with  the  mathematics  of  the 
seventh  grade.  Under  the  guidance  of  a  teacher  who  explains 
the  keeping  of  records  and  checks  the  accounts,  each  pupil  acts 
as  banker  for  one  week.  The  bank  serves  three  purposes:  it 
makes  the  computation  of  interest  a  problem  of  real  significance; 
it  provides  first-hand  experience  in  important  phases  of  busi- 
ness practice;  and  it  helps  to  form  habits  of  thrift.  A  card  cata- 
logue of  depositors,  a  metal  bank  box,  a  cashier's  cage,  and  regu- 
lar banking  hours  make  the  bank  a  genuine  business  institution. 

VI.  Student  Publications. 

The  students  issue  two  publications,  "Lincoln  Lore,"  a 
monthly  magazine,  and  "The  Lincolnian,"  the  year-book  of  the 
graduating  class.  The  contents  of  both  are  largely  assembled, 
criticized  and  rewritten  in  the  English  classes,  where  opportun- 
ity is  given,  not  only  for  composition,  but  also  for  judging  the 


STUDENT  ACTIVITIES  75 

value  of  contributions.  The  staff  of  "Lincoln  Lore"  consists  of 
twelve  high  school  pupils,  representatives  of  the  elementary 
grades,  and  an  English  teacher.  The  amount  of  material  used 
is  restricted,  in  order  that  what  is  published  may  be  of  satis- 
factory grade. 

VII.  Scout  Troops. 

Troop  612,  Boy  Scouts  of  America  consists  of  boys  in  the 
high  school.  The  troop  is  divided  into  two  sections,  one  for 
the  junior  high  school,  and  one  for  the  senior  high  school. 
The  junior  section  meets  one  afternoon  each  week  for  dis- 
cussion of  business,  instruction  and  examination  in  scout  tests, 
patrol  contests,  and  practice  for  scout  demonstrations.  At 
other  times  there  are  "hikes,"  joint  meetings  with  the  Horace 
Mann  School  troop,  initiation  parties,  and  social  meetings  at  the 
homes  of  troop  members.  Meetings  of  those  present  are  held 
during  the  summer  at  Camp  Lincoln. 

Membership  in  the  senior  section  is  open  to  senior  high  school 
boys  who,  as  members  of  the  junior  section,  attained  a  high  grade 
in  scouting.  The  aims  of  this  section  are  to  maintain  the  interest 
of  older  boys  in  scouting,  to  help  the  junior  section,  and  to  pro- 
mote good  fellowship  through  social  activities.  The  members 
have  given  valuable  aid  in  various  movements  by  their  effective 
cooperation. 

VIII.  Girl  Scouts  of  America. 

A  Girl  Scouts  troop  has  also  been  organized  in  the  school.  In 
April,  1919,  there  were  eleven  tenderfoot  scouts;  in  1920  there 
were  two  patrols;  and  in  September  of  that  year  the  number 
enrolled  justified  the  formation  of  two  full  troops.  In  192 1  the 
two  troops  were  united  into  a  strong  single  troop,  and  two  new 
patrols  were  organized.  By  June,  1922,  all  but  a  few  members 
of  the  four  patrols  were  second-class  scouts.  The  scout  activities 
are  closely  related  to  the  work  of  the  school,  and  the  aim  is  al- 
ways to  cultivate  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  the  betterment  of 
the  school.    The  work  done  in  the  classroom  is  a  frequent  source 


76  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

of  ideas  in  planning  bazaars,  fairs,  and  parties,  and  money  earned 
at  such  affairs  is  given  to  a  deserving  organization  or  needy 
family. 

Like  the  boy  scouts,  the  girls  have  many  interesting  outiQgs, 
parties,  and  excursions.  High  standards  of  health  and  useful- 
ness are  constantly  urged. 


XXI.    MISCELLANEOUS 

Parents-Teachers  AssoaAxiON 

Meetings  of  the  parents  and  teachers  in  the  Lincoln  School 
are  held  for  the  free  discussion  of  matters  of  general  interest,  as 
well  as  those  which  particularly  relate  to  the  pupils  in  the  school. 
Each  year  there  are  four  general  meetings  with  programs  of  in- 
terest to  parents  with  children  in  any  part  of  the  school.  Special 
afternoon  meetings  are  held  for  parents  of  children  in  particular 
grades,  the  programs  being  arranged  by  committees  consisting 
of  the  teachers  of  the  grades  and  two  or  three  mothers  of  pupils 
in  the  classes. 

The  topics  presented  may  relate  to  educational  philosophy, 
to  experimental  work,  to  school  procedure,  or  may  consist  of 
demonstrations  by  pupils.  Some  of  the  topics  that  have  been 
considered  are:  individual  and  group  intelligence  tests,  modern 
educational  theories  and  practices,  educational  reformers  and 
reforms  of  the  past,  a  program  of  national  education,  and  the 
problem  of  summer  vacation  work.  A  typical  program  will 
serve  to  show  the  nature  of  the  topics  and  the  procedure  in  pre- 
senting them. 


Friday,  April  8th,  8:15?.  m.,  1921 

I.    Purpose  of  the  meeting. 

It  has  been  decided  that,  instead  of  giving  the  entire  evening 
to  a  single  topic,  opportunity  shall  be  given  for  brief  discussion 
of  several  topics.    Accordingly  the  Program  Committee  re- 

77 


78  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

cently  sent  to  all  parents  a  request  for  suggestions  for  the 
special  program  announced  herewith.  The  topics  suggested, 
except  two,  are  included. 

II.  Topics* 

1.  The  relation  of  The  Lincoln  School's  Program  to  college  entrance. 

2.  The  purpose  of  homework  and  methods  of  doing  it. 

3.  Periodical  reports  concerning  pupils'  progress  in  school. 

4.  Should  the  school  change  its  present  provision  for  instrumental 

music? 

5.  The  new  building  and  location,  and  miscellaneous  topics  concern- 

ing school  procedure.     In  response  to  numerous  questions,  the 

Director  of  the  school  will  exhibit  and  discuss  the  building  plans; 

also,  luncheon  arrangements  for  pupils,  proposed  transportation 

arrangements,  school  costs,  and  other  specific  questions  which 

have  been  asked  regarding  the  work  of  the  school  will  be  d  iscussed. 

In  the  case  of  the  two  topics  not  included — Purposes  and  method    in 

Social  Studies,  and  in  Foreign  Languages — it  seemed  best  to  the  Program 

Committee  to  arrange  for  a  full  evening's  program  upon  each  topic  at  a  later 

date. 

III.  Plan  of  the  Meeting. 

The  Committee  has  decided  to  have  brief  explanatory  state- 
ments and  brief  discussions.  Lengthy  discussions  will  obvi- 
ously be  impossible,  but  it  is  deemed  best  for  this  time  to  orga- 
nize this  type  of  program  so  that  several  matters  may  be 
presented  in  the  one  evening." 

The  splendid  cooperation  of  parents  with  teachers  in  discussing 
these  and  other  topics  aids  in  solving  many  school  problems,  and 
in  developing  a  common  and  sympathetic  interest  in  education. 

COLLEGE  ENTRANCE 

The  Lincoln  School  is  not  primarily  a  preparatory  school,  but 
most  of  its  pupils  plan  to  enter  college.  The  course  of  study 
now  in  operation  is  accepted  for  entrance  to  colleges  such  as 
Harvard,  Yale,  Columbia,  Cornell,  Barnard,  Vassar,  University 
of  Chicago,  University  of  Michigan,  and  the   Massachusetts 

*The  names  of  the  speakers  appeared  in  the  printed  program  but  are 
omitted  from  this  report. 


MISCELLANEOUS  79 

Institute  of  Technology.    Few  colleges  still  require  an  ancient 
language  for  college  entrance. 

SCHOOL  VISITORS 

From  its  beginning,  the  school  has  been  constantly  visited  by 
persons  interested  in  education.  Visitors  have  come  from  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  from  foreign  countries.  Many 
of  them  have  been  of  great  help  to  the  school  through  suggestion, 
criticism,  and  cooperation;  and  a  few  have,  at  our  request, 
remained  several  days,  and  have  submitted  written  reports  re- 
garding the  school. 

Since  experimentation  with  the  hope  of  improving  education 
is  the  prime  purpose  of  the  school,  obviously  not  many  visitors 
can  be  admitted  to  the  school  on  any  one  day.  It  has  become 
necessary  to  limit  the  number,  and  to  ask  those  desiring  to  visit 
to  make  appointments  in  advance.  In  this  way  disappointment 
and  inconvenience  both  to  visitors  and  the  school  are  avoided. 
The  school  plans  to  admit  not  more  than  a  half  dozen  visitors  on 
any  one  day,  in  order  that  those  admitted  may  go  about  the 
school  without  disturbance  to  classes,  and  with  greatest  satis- 
faction to  themselves. 

THE  NEW  SCHOOL  BUILDING 

When  it  was  decided  to  establish  the  Lincoln  School,  it  did  not 
seem  wise  to  invest  the  large  sum  necessary  for  a  new  building. 
The  building  at  646  Park  Avenue  was  therefore  rented  for  five 
years.  After  two  years  it  became  necessary  to  purchase  an  ad- 
joining dwelling  house  for  the  use  of  the  first  three  grades.  In 
anticipation  of  the  termination  of  the  period  for  which  the  Park 
Avenue  building  was  rented,  and  because  of  the  desire  to  provide 
for  the  increased  needs  of  the  school,  the  site  on  which  the  present 
building  stands,  on  123rd  Street,  between  Amsterdam  and  Morn- 
ingside  avenues,  was  purchased.  The  new  building  was  occupied 
on  April  17,  1922.    It  provides  adequate  space  for  classrooms, 


8o  A  DESCRIPTIVE  BOOKLET 

laboratories,  library,  playgrounds,  etc.,  and  for  investigators. 
Buses  are  operated  to  transport  pupils  from  the  former  school 
neighborhood  to  the  new  building. 

ADMISSION,   FEES,  AND   SCHOLARSHIPS 

The  classes  are  so  well  filled  that  the  school  has  been  unable 
to  accept  all  or  even  most  of  those  desiring  admission.  Owing 
to  the  increased  facilities  of  the  new  building,  however,  it 
is  now  possible  to  add  a  few  pupils  each  year  for  several  years. 
Applications  are  considered  and  reported  upon  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  preceding  that  for  which  application  is  made.  Those 
desiring  to  enroll  children  should  ask  for  application  blanks. 

A  number  of  partial  scholarships  are  provided,  so  that  tuition 
charges  may  not  prevent  worthy  pu|Dils  from  attending  the 
school.  Applications  for  scholarships  should  be  made  to  the 
director. 

Three-fifths  of  the  tuition  charges  is  due  at  the  opening  of 
the  school  year,  and  two-fifths  on  or  before  January  15.  The 
tuition  rates  are  as  follow^s: 

Grades  i  and  2 $275 

3  and  4 $300 

5  and  6 $350 

7  to  12 $400 

SCHOOL  CALENDAR,   1 92 2-1 923 

September  18-22 Week  of  Teachers*  Conferences 

September  25 School  opens 

November  7 Election  Day 

November  30-Dec.  i Thanksgiving  Vacation 

December  22 Last  day  of  School  before  Christmas  Vacation 

January  2 Tuesday — School   Reopens 

February  22 Washington's  Birthday 

Apr.  6-15 Spring  Vacation 

May  30 Memorial  Day 

June  8 School  Closes 


RETURN         CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 
TO-^-                     198  Main  Stacks 

LOAN  PERIOD  1 
HOME  USE 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  ARER  7  DAYS. 

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Books  may  be  Renewed  by  calling  642-3405. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

JUNO^igSJ 

FORM  NO.  DD6 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
BERKELEY  CA  94720-6000 


YB  444n 


584434 

.     '    N4 


^/ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


